Comportement, bien-être et normes : Publications

We propose a two-stage experiment in which people receive feedback about their relative intelligence. This feedback is a noisy message reminded at every stage, so that subjects cannot forget this ego-relevant information. Instead, we exogenously vary whether the informativeness of the message is reminded in the second stage. We investigate how this treatment variation affects the informativeness reported by subjects, and their posterior beliefs about their intelligence. We show that subjects report informativeness in a self-serving way: subjects with negative messages report that these messages are significantly less informative in the absence of reminder than with it. We also show that the lack of reminder about message informativeness allows subjects to keep a better image of themselves. These results are confirmed by complementary treatments in which we decrease messages informativeness: subjects tend to inflate the informativeness of positive messages that should now be interpreted as bad news.

Dix-huit Conférences citoyennes régionales (CCR) (13 dans les régions métropolitaines et cinq dans les départements et régions d’outre-mer) et une Conférence citoyenne nationale dédiée à la jeunesse se sont tenues dans la deuxième phase du Grand débat national (GDN) (soit les vendredi et samedi 15-16 mars 2019, soit les vendredi et samedi 22-23 mars 2019). 1 404 personnes y ont participé (1 216 dans les 13 CCR hexagonales, 68 dans la Conférence nationale sur la jeunesse, à partir d’un tirage au sort national dans la base des numéros de téléphones, et 120 dans les cinq CCR des départements et régions d’outre-mer, à partir d’un recrutement spécifique à chacun de ces territoires). Pour la France métropolitaine, il s’agit du plus vaste tirage au sort réalisé pour constituer un mini-public. Ce rapport décrit en premier lieu précisément le processus de recrutement, globalement désigné par les termes de tirage au sort, pour discuter la représentativité des CCR. Puis il décrit le protocole d’observation de leur déroulement, mis en place par l’Observatoire des débats (https://observdebats.hypotheses.org/), ainsi que le processus de passation des questionnaires lors des CCR, d’une part (en entrée et en sortie) par la mission organisatrice, d’autre part (en sortie) par les chercheurs rassemblés par l’Observatoire des débats. Le rapport compare ensuite les caractéristiques socio-démographiques des participants aux CCR avec celles de la population française générale, ce qui nous permet de montrer que les CCR ne sont pas représentatives de la population générale. Finalement, le rapport resitue les réponses données aux questionnaires et les statistiques descriptives associées (c’est-à-dire le nombre de répondants à chaque question et la distribution, la moyenne et l’écart-type des réponses).

How can social prospects be evaluated and compared when there may be a risk on i) the actual allocations that people will receive, ii) the existence of these future people, and iii) their preferences? This paper investigates this question, which can arise when considering policies, such as climate policy, that affect people who do not yet exist. We start from the observation that there is no social ordering that meets minimal requirements of fairness, social rationality, and respect for people’s ex ante preferences. We explore three ways around this impossibility. First, if we drop the ex ante Pareto requirement, we can obtain fair ex post criteria that take an (arbitrary) expected utility of an equally-distributed equivalent level of well-being. Second, if the social ordering is not an expected utility, we can obtain fair ex ante criteria that evaluate uncertain individual prospects with a certaintyequivalent measure of well-being. Third, if we accept that interpersonal comparisons rely on VNM utility functions even in absence of risk, we can construct expected utility social orderings that satisfy of a version of Pareto ex ante.

Equivalence scales (ES) are widely used to compare income levels across different households.

Yet the commonly used OECD and square-root scales rely on assumptions about household economies of scale that lack robust empirical support. Using responses to the Minimum Income Question (MIQ) from the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) survey, we construct subjective ES based on panel data, rather than relying on pooled OLS as in most previous studies, allowing us to track how income needs evolve within households over time instead of comparing different households. The economies of scale in this subjective scale are notably different from those in traditional ES, and these differences have a substantial effect on the levels and distribution of equivalised income. Based on our empirical findings, we propose a simple alternative to conventional ES and illustrate its implications for poverty and inequality, both within and across countries. Our results show that the choice of equivalence scale significantly influences not only the estimated levels of these variables but also country rankings in comparative analyses.

We here use European Social Survey data to disentangle the ‘inherited’ and ‘contextual’ components of resilience, following the approaches taken in Alesina and Giuliano (2010) and Luttmer and Singhal (2011). We suggest that the inherited part of resilience reflects culture in the country of birth, while the contextual part captures both institutions and culture in the country where the individual currently resides. We separately identify these two components via a sample of immigrants, for whom the birth and residence countries differ. We find that resilience is both inherited and contextual, with the latter component being the most important. The ‘inherited’ component of resilience is larger for men and those who do not have citizenship in their residence country. We last present some evidence from second-generation immigrants of the intergenerational transmission of inherited cultural resilience.

We here use UK data and exploit the State Pension eligibility age to establish the causal effect of parental retirement on adult children’s well-being in a Fuzzy Regression Discontinuity Design analysis. Maternal retirement increases adult children’s life and income satisfaction by 0.20 standard deviations in the short run. These impacts are stronger for adult children with lower incomes, with young children of their own, and who live close to their retired parents. We emphasise the critical role of intergenerational time transfers from retired mothers in enhancing their adult children’s well-being.

The traditional specialization of men in paid work and women in housework is rooted in the spatial separation of these activities. We examine the possible consequences of the recent expansion of Work from Home (WfH) for the gendered allocation of time. We focus on the time devoted to housework by men and women who work from home versus at the workplace, before and after the Covid pandemic. Using data on several thousand workers drawn from the American Time Use Survey, we find that the gender gap in unpaid work has declined by about 27 minutes per day, i.e. by about 40% for remote workers. Among those, women now spend more time on paid work and less on unpaid work, whereas men do more household chores.

We study vertical transmission and societal diffusion of gender norms using the large immigration wave from the former Soviet Union (FSU) to Israel in the early 1990’s. Tracking the educational choices of an entire cohort, born in 1988–89, we compare gender gaps among immigrants from the FSU versus natives and immigrants from other countries. We find smaller gender gaps among FSU immigrants in both traditionally male-dominated STEM fields and female-dominated pink collar jobs, e.g., education and social work. These patterns are largely driven by the behavior of FSU women and are not explained by early achievement levels or comparative advantage. Leveraging variation in the concentration of FSU immigrants across middle schools, we find that among natives, gender gaps narrow with the exposure to FSU immigrants, reflecting a shift in the choice patterns of native women towards STEM and away from pink collar fields.

Subjective wellbeing data are increasingly used across the social sciences. Yet, despite the widespread use of such data, the predictive power of approaches commonly used to model wellbeing is only limited. In response, we here use tree-based Machine Learning (ML) algorithms to provide a better understanding of respondents’ self-reported wellbeing. We analyse representative samples of more than one million respondents from Germany, the UK, and the United States, using data from 2010 to 2018. We make three contributions. First, we show that ML algorithms can indeed yield better predictive performance than standard approaches, and establish an upper bound on the predictability of wellbeing scores with survey data. Second, we use ML to identify the key drivers of evaluative wellbeing. We show that the variables emphasised in the earlier intuition- and theory-based literature also appear in ML analyses. Third, we illustrate how ML can be used to make a judgement about functional forms, including the existence of satiation points in the effects of income and the U-shaped relationship between age and wellbeing.

Whether individuals feel confident about their own actions, choices, or statements being correct, and how these confidence levels differ between individuals are two key primitives for countless behavioral theories and phenomena. In cognitive tasks, individual confidence is typically measured as the average of reports about choice accuracy, but how reliable is the resulting characterization of within-and between-individual confidence remains surprisingly undocumented. Here, we perform a large-scale resampling exercise in the Confidence Database to investigate the reliability of individual confidence estimates, and of comparisons across individuals’ confidence levels. Our results show that confidence estimates are more stable than their choice-accuracy counterpart, reaching a reliability plateau after roughly 50 trials, regardless of a number of task design characteristics. While constituting a reliability upper-bound for task-based confidence measures, and thereby leaving open the question of the reliability of the construct itself, these results characterize the robustness of past and future task designs.

Dishonest behaviours such as tax evasion impose significant societal costs. Ex ante honesty oaths—commitments to honesty before action—have been proposed as interventions to counteract dishonest behaviour, but the heterogeneity in findings across operationalizations calls their effectiveness into question. We tested 21 honesty oaths (including a baseline oath)—proposed, evaluated and selected by 44 expert researchers—and a no-oath condition in a megastudy involving 21,506 UK and US participants from Prolific.com who played an incentivized tax evasion game online. Of the 21 interventions, 10 significantly improved tax compliance by 4.5 to 8.5 percentage points, with the most successful nearly halving tax evasion. Limited evidence for moderators was found. Experts and laypeople failed to predict the most effective interventions, though experts’ predictions were more accurate. In conclusion, honesty oaths were effective in curbing dishonesty, but their effectiveness varied depending on content. These findings can help design impactful interventions to curb dishonesty.

Across five experiments (N = 1,714), we test whether people engage in wishful thinking to alleviate anxiety about adverse future outcomes. Participants perform pattern recognition tasks in which some patterns may result in an electric shock or a monetary loss. Diagnostic of wishful thinking, participants are less likely to correctly identify patterns that are associated with a shock or loss. Wishful thinking is more pronounced under more ambiguous signals and only reduced by higher accuracy incentives when participants’ cognitive effort reduces ambiguity. Wishful thinking disappears in the domain of monetary gains, indicating that negative emotions are important drivers of the phenomenon.

Ce rapport de l’Observatoire du bien-être pour l’année 2023 porte sur différents aspects de la vie des Français, certains purement nationaux et d’autres affectés par des phénomènes d’échelle mondiale.

L’idée d’un championnat regroupant les plus grands clubs européens n’est pas nouvelle. Décryptage de l’économie du soccer aux États-Unis et perspectives pour le football européen.

We develop a theoretical framework analyzing responsible firms (REFs) that prioritize worker welfare alongside profits in labor markets with search frictions. At the micro level, REFs’ use of market power varies with labor conditions: they refrain from using it in slack markets but may exercise it in tight markets without harming workers. Our macro analysis shows these firms offer higher wages, creating a distinct high-wage sector. When firms endogenously choose worker bargaining power, there is a trade-off between worker surplus and employment, though this improves with elastic labor supply. While REFs cannot survive with free entry, they can coexist with profit-maximizing firms under limited competition, where their presence forces ordinary firms to raise wages.

La taxation des boissons sucrées est, depuis 15 ans, une mesure de santé publique appliquée sur un nombre croissant de territoires. Cette intervention gagne à être évaluée, ce qui implique d’en clarifier les finalités. Basé sur les résultats d’un projet de recherche pluridisciplinaire, cet article analyse les conditions de la révision de la taxation des boissons sucrées en France en 2018. Il met en évidence que l’intention est plutôt de faire évoluer la qualité nutritionnelle de l’offre de boissons que d’influencer directement le comportement des consommateurs. Par ailleurs, il présente quelques effets associés à la mise en oeuvre de la taxe.

Afin de promouvoir une alimentation plus favorable à la santé, l’environnement des consommateurs fait l’objet d’interventions des pouvoirs publics visant à mieux les informer, à inciter les fabricants à améliorer la composition nutritionnelle des produits, ou encore à encadrer le marketing dont ces derniers font l’objet. Depuis quelques années, la taxation d’aliments et de boissons au profil nutritionnel peu favorable à la santé fait partie des mesures qui suscitent de l’intérêt. La taxation des boissons sucrées ou « taxe soda » fait partie des mesures recommandées par l’Organisation mondiale de la santé (OMS) (WHO 2022). En France, une taxe soda 1 a été instaurée en janvier 2012. Modifiée en juillet 2018, elle est désormais indexée sur la teneur en sucres ajoutés dans la boisson (Ministère de l’action et des comptes publics 2018). A l’heure où d’autres pays s’interrogent sur la mise en place ou l’optimisation d’une telle mesure, ce changement donne l’opportunité de tirer des apprentissages de son élaboration, de sa mise en œuvre et de ses effets sur l’offre et la consommation. C’est dans cette perspective qu’a été construit le projet de recherche Soda-Tax (2019-2023), coordonné par l’Ecole des hautes études en santé publique (EHESP) en collaboration avec l’Ecole d’Economie de Paris, l’Institut National de la Recherche pour l’Agriculture, l’Alimentation et l’Environnement (INRAE), l’Université Sorbonne Paris Nord (USPN), et Nantes Université. Ce projet a été cofinancé par la Ligue Contre le Cancer dans le cadre de l’Appel à projets général de l’Institut pour la Recherche en Santé Publique (IReSP) – volet prévention et promotion de la santé 2018. Ce rapport synthétise les résultats de la recherche. Certains d’entre eux ont déjà été publiés. D’autres résultats seront soumis dans les prochains mois à des revues scientifiques dont le processus de révision par les pairs pourrait dans certains cas les amener à évoluer. Ces résultats sont donc ici communiqués à titre préliminaire, la diffusion de ce rapport ayant vocation à éclairer le pilotage de la mesure et à informer les acteurs intéressés dans un délai plus opportun.

Judgment-aggregation theory has always focused on the attainment of rational collective judgments. But so far, rationality has been understood in static terms: as coherence of judgments at a given time, defined as consistency, completeness, and/or deductive closure. This paper asks whether collective judgments can be dynamically rational, so that they change rationally in response to new information. Formally, a judgment aggregation rule is dynamically rational with respect to a given revision operator if, whenever all individuals revise their judgments in light of some information (a learnt proposition), then the new aggregate judgments are the old ones revised in light of this information, i.e., aggregation and revision commute. We prove an impossibility theorem: if the propositions on the agenda are non-trivially connected, no judgment aggregation rule with standard properties is dynamically rational with respect to any revision operator satisfying some basic conditions. Our theorem is the dynamic-rationality counterpart of some well-known impossibility theorems for static rationality. We also explore how dynamic rationality might be achieved by relaxing some of the conditions on the aggregation rule and/or the revision operator. Notably, premise-based aggregation rules are dynamically rational with respect to so-called premise-based revision operators.

Does pre-voting group deliberation improve majority outcomes? To address this question, we develop a probabilistic model of opinion formation and deliberation. Two new jury theorems, one pre-deliberation and one post-deliberation, suggest that deliberation is beneficial. Successful deliberation mitigates three voting failures: (1) overcounting widespread evidence, (2) neglecting evidential inequality, and (3) neglecting evidential complementarity. Formal results and simulations confirm this. But we identify four systematic exceptions where deliberation reduces majority competence, always by increasing Failure 1. Our analysis recommends deliberation that is ‘participatory’, ‘neutral’, but not necessarily ‘equal’, i.e., that involves substantive sharing, privileges no evidences, but might privilege some persons.

We revisit the Easterlin paradox about the flatness of the happiness trend over the long run, in spite of sustained economic development. With a bounded scale that explicitly refers to « the best possible life for you » and « the worst possible life for you », is it even possible to observe a rising trend in self-declared life satisfaction? We consider the possibility of rescaling, i.e. that the interpretation of the scale changes with the context in which respondents are placed. We propose a simple model of rescaling and reconstruct an index of latent happiness on the basis of retrospective reports included in unexploited archival data from the USA. We show that national well-being has substantially increased from the 1950s to the early 2000s, on par with GDP, health, education, and liberal democracy. We validate our new index on several datasets, and find that it captures important changes in personal life circumstances over and above nominal life satisfaction. Our model sheds light on several well-documented happiness puzzles, including why life satisfaction did not drop during the COVID-19 pandemic, why Ukrainians report similar levels of life satisfaction today as before the war, and why people take life-changing decisions -like having kids -that seem to make them less happy.

Depuis le 1er janvier 2022, conformément à l’ordonnance n° 2021-1325 du 13 octobre 2021 et au décret n° 2021-1905 du 30 décembre 2021, l’Anses reprend les missions du Haut conseil des biotechnologies (HCB) concernant l’évaluation des risques pour l’environnement de l’ensemble des utilisations de biotechnologies en milieu ouvert, et les impacts socioéconomiques. L’Anses a été saisie dans le cadre de ces nouvelles missions par la Direction générale de la prévention des risques (DGPR) et la Direction générale de l’alimentation (DGAl) sur l’utilisation des nouvelle techniques génomiques (NTG) sur les végétaux. Les autres instances ayant repris les missions du HCB, à savoir le Conseil économique, social et environnemental (CESE) et le Comité consultatif national d’éthique (CCNE), ont également été sollicité sur cette question sur les périmètres correspondant respectivement aux questions sociétales et éthiques. Par ailleurs, il convient de noter que de nombreux acteurs institutionnels publics, organisations professionnelles et syndicales ont également produit des rapports sur les NTG. Le rapport d’expertise collective est réalisé dans le périmètre des missions de l’Anses sur les biotechnologies, incluant l’évaluation des risques sanitaires et environnementaux et les impacts socio-économiques. Il vise à éclairer les demandeurs sur ce périmètre qui couvre seulement une partie des enjeux liés à l’utilisation des NTG dans le domaine de la sélection végétale. Les questions instruites dans ce rapport sont donc limitées à ce périmètre et les conclusions devront être prises en compte uniquement dans ce cadre et mises en perspective avec les avis des autres instances sollicitées. Il convient de noter que cette expertise a été engagée avant la proposition de règlement de la Commission du 5 juillet 20231. Suite à sa publication, l’Anses a décidé de s’autosaisir afin de mener une analyse des critères définissant les plantes NTG de catégorie 1, considérées comme équivalentes aux plantes conventionnelles, exposés dans l’annexe 1 et justifiés par une note technique diffusée par la Commission européenne en octobre (Anses 2023). Cette analyse a été réalisée en parallèle et ses conclusions n’ont donc pas été prises en compte dans le présent travail d’expertise, réalisé dans le cadre du périmètre défini précédemment, qui ne fait pas la distinction entre les plantes NTG de catégorie 1 et 2.

Les revendications des footballeuses, notamment les joueuses américaines de « soccer », sur l’égalité de traitement avec les footballeurs, n’ont été satisfaites qu’au niveau des équipes nationales. L’équation Equal play, equal pay dans les championnats est loin d’être aussi simple à résoudre et, malgré des raisons liées à l’histoire du football féminin, s’explique aussi par son économie.

L’Anses a été saisie le 3/08/2022 par la Direction générale de la santé (DGS) pour la réalisation de l’expertise suivante : demande d’avis relatif à la probabilité d’apparition d’épidémies de maladies transmises par les moustiques dans l’Hexagone et sur leurs impacts sur la santé et l’économie.

Sport professionnel européen le plus développé financièrement parlant, le football n’en reste pas moins un secteur où il demeure particulièrement complexe d’appliquer les méthodologies d’analyses de l’économie traditionnelle.

Un des derbys les plus légendaires au monde qui repose sur une rivalité politico-religieuse concerne le match qui oppose en Écosse, à Glasgow, le Celtic au Rangers. Cependant, les premières confrontations à la fin du XIXe siècle étaient avant tout de gros succès populaires et commerciaux, d’où l’appellation The Old Firm (« La Vieille Entente »), symbolisant le commun intérêt financier des deux clubs de la capitale écossaise. Ce n’est qu’une vingtaine d’années plus tard, dans les années 1910 que l’antagonisme apparaîtra véritablement : Verts contre. Bleus, Catholiques vs. Protestants, Républicains vs. Unionistes. Même si aujourd’hui, The Old Firm a perdu quelque peu de sa superbe au niveau européen, tant du point de vue sportif qu’économique, il demeure un succès populaire qui génère d’importants revenus les jours de match. La rivalité, toujours essentielle à ce succès, a aussi changé de nature : la société étant devenue moins religieuse, The Old Firm est devenu son propre générateur de « sectarisme ».

The fact that home football teams win more games than away teams has been largely discussed in the literature. Crowd factors appear to be the most dominant cause of this home advantage . At the end of the 2019–2020 season, the COVID-19 pandemic forced European football teams to close their stadium to fans, allowing researchers to exploit this natural experiment to analyze the effects of crowd on match outcomes and referees’ decisions. To answer to this question, we used match data played in the top two divisions of four of the main national professional leagues in European countries and Portugal in the 2018–19 and the 2019–20 seasons. We find that the total absence of a generally supportive crowd has a significant effect on home advantage. This results in a reduction of the chances of a home win, a poorer performance by the home team’s players, and more severe refereeing decisions toward the home team and less severe toward the away team.

The equivalent income is a preference-based, interpersonally comparable measure of well-being.

Although its theoretical foundations are well-established, empirical applications remain limited, primarily due to the detailed data requirements on individuals’ preferences across various wellbeing dimensions. This paper reviews the literature on preference elicitation methods with a focus on estimating equivalent income. We examine several survey-based methods, including contingent valuation, multi-attribute choice or rating experiments, and life satisfaction regressions. The review highlights the advantages and limitations of each method, emphasizing the considerable scope for methodological improvements and innovations.

Suppose that, for whatever reason, it is decided that inequalities within countries are more offensive than inequalities between countries, and that inequalities between populations living together are more offensive than inequalities between generations living in different times. Can a social welfare function express that preference? We show that it is actually difficult to incorporate such a localist preference into a social welfare function, except in a limited way (i.e., from a situation of specific similarity between countries). We also show that in order to obtain such preferences, the relative size of inequality aversion within and between countries may be counter-intuitive in some relevant cases, in the sense that a greater inequality aversion may happen to be required across countries than within countries. This research highlights new social welfare functions that aggregate the outcomes of evaluations over pairs of agents.

Malgré les espoirs nourris par les démocraties après la Seconde Guerre mondiale, malgré la tentative de construire un ordre international fondé sur le multilatéralisme et malgré la dissuasion nucléaire, la guerre ne cesse de se rallumer en de multiples points du monde, y compris aux portes de l’Europe. Depuis 2022, la guerre en Ukraine a réactivé d’anciens débats : rationalité et justification morale de la guerre, nature des interactions stratégiques entre acteurs du conflit, mobilisation de la population civile, légitimité et efficacité des sanctions contre l’agresseur. Elle soulève également de nouvelles questions. Du côté de la Russie, la guerre fait-elle l’objet d’un consensus au sein des élites ? Pour l’Union européenne, est-elle l’occasion d’une cohésion approfondie, à l’image de l’accueil coordonné des réfugiés ukrainiens ? Ce conflit illustre également l’étendue des armes et des cibles de guerre, des plus traditionnelles telles que l’eau aux outils de communication les plus modernes. Les douze contributions réunies dans ce volume abordent ces questionnements à l’aide des outils propres à différentes disciplines des sciences sociales et humaines. La plupart se rapportent à la guerre en Ukraine, mais certaines ramènent le lecteur au Moyen Âge ou à l’Antiquité, tandis que d’autres appréhendent la manière d’écrire l’histoire de la guerre ou de la représenter dans une œuvre picturale.

Everyone expects telework to ‘stick’, but will this make workers happier? On the one hand, work from home (WFH) is clearly desired by a majority of workers, as evidenced by their willingness to pay for this arrangement. This finding is supported by all choice experiments, either real, on a recruitment platform for example, or hypothetical, via surveys. But, on the other hand, working entirely from home seems to be detrimental to their life satisfaction and their mental health, as shown by difference-in-differences studies based on the COVID-19 natural experience. Is hybrid work the optimal solution, the ideal compromise between the pros (saving commuting time) and the cons (loosing social integration) of WFH? This seems to be the aspiration of most workers worldwide. Does the demand for hybrid work also reflect a trade-off between life satisfaction and job satisfaction?

We use quarterly panel data from the COME-HERE survey covering five European countries to analyse three facets of the experience of loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic. First, in terms of prevalence, loneliness peaked in April 2020, followed by a U-shape pattern in the rest of 2020, and then remained relatively stable throughout 2021 and 2022. We then establish the individual determinants of loneliness and compare them to those found in the literature predating the COVID-19 pandemic. As in previous work, women are lonelier, and partnership, education, income, and employment protect against loneliness. However, the pandemic substantially shifted the age profile: it is now the youngest who are the loneliest. We last show that pandemic policies affected loneliness, which rose with containment policies but fell with government economic support. Conversely, the intensity of the pandemic itself, via the number of recent COVID-19 deaths, had only a minor impact. The experience of the pandemic has thus shown that public policy can influence societal loneliness trends.

Formal enforcement punishing defectors can sustain cooperation by changing incentives. In this paper we introduce a second effect of enforcement: it can also affect the capacity to learn about the group’s cooperativeness. Indeed, in contexts with strong enforcement, it is difficult to tell apart those who cooperate because of the threat of fines from those who are intrinsically cooperative types. Enforcement can then potentially have a negative dynamic impact on cooperation when it prevents learning. We provide theoretical and experimental evidence in support of this mechanism. Using a lab experiment with independent interactions and random rematching, we observe that, in early interactions, having faced an environment with fines in the past decreases current cooperation. We further show that this results from the interaction between enforcement and learning: the effect of having met cooperative partners has a stronger effect on current cooperation when this happened in an environment with no enforcement.

Unweighted benefit–cost analysis (BCA) based on aggregate willingness to pay might be, at long last, falling into disrepute, as it is widely recognized that it exhibits a bias toward the wealthy, and as alternatives are appearing more and more practicable. However, the choice of alternatives is often framed in terms of choosing an alternative metric to willingness to pay in money, such as willingness to pay in healthy life years, or a measure of subjective well-being. It is argued in this paper that (i) a simple summation of individuals’ willingness to pay in any numeraire (e.g., money, healthy life years) is bound to generate non-transitivity issues in a similar way as money-based BCA, and (ii) a metric such as subjective well-being involves distributional value judgments that are too specific to reflect the relevant spectrum in the public debate. The “orthodox” weighted BCA method, which links BCA to an underlying social welfare function, offers more flexibility and guarantees transitive choices. Fortunately, in some relevant cases, these various methods may provide similar results, and the main options currently proposed all give greater weight to the worse off in the population than does unweighted BCA.

Dans un contexte d’investissements massifs dans les données de santé, j’utilise une enquête quantitative menée en 2016 auprès de 1 700 adhérents d’une mutuelle pour appréhender les représentations sociales concernant l’usage des données de santé en France. L’enquête capte l’intérêt des adhérents pour différents services innovants de santé, qui seraient éventuellement proposés par la mutuelle et qui utiliseraient leurs données de santé. L’analyse dévoile que les répondants sont à la fois préoccupés par la sécurité de leurs données et intéressés par les services. Un adhérent se montre d’autant plus intéressé que son état de santé est dégradé et que ses inquiétudes pour ses vieux jours sont grandes. De plus, une position sociale moins favorable va de pair avec un intérêt plus fort pour les services, ce qui pourrait refléter l’existence d’inégalités sociales dans l’accès aux technologies de santé.

À l’aide d’une enquête de panel auprès de 26 000 personnes résidant à Londres, Paris et Berlin pendant les mois d’été de 2011, 2012 et 2013, les auteurs exploitent l’expérience quasi naturelle que constitue le choix de Londres comme ville d’accueil. Ils suivent une approche en différence de différences, afin d’identifier l’effet d’accueillir les Jeux olympiques (JO) à l’été 2012.Leurs résultats montrent que les JO d’été ont accru la satisfaction et le bonheur des Londoniens à court terme (c’est-à-dire pendant la période olympique), en particulier autour des cérémonies d’ouverture et de clôture. L’effet bénéfique sur les Londoniens est assez important, mais l’équivalent monétaire de ce gain en bien-être subjectif reste bien inférieur au coût réel de l’événement. Cependant, la conclusion est différente, si l’on suppose que l’effet hédonique s’étend à l’échelle du Royaume-Uni et non à la seule ville de Londres.

This paper investigates the association between several mental health indicators (depression, anxiety, stress, and loneliness) and the overall tendency to follow official recommendations regarding self-protection against COVID-19 (i.e., overall compliance). We employ panel data from the COME-HERE survey, collected over four waves, on 7,766 individuals (22,878 observations) from France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and Sweden. Employing a flexible specification that allows the association to be non-monotonic, we find a U-shaped relationship, in which transitions to low and high levels of mental health are associated with higher overall compliance, while transitions to medium levels of mental health are associated with less overall compliance. Moreover, anxiety, stress, and loneliness levels at baseline (i.e., at wave 1) also have a U-shaped effect on overall compliance later (i.e., recommendations are followed best by those with lowest and highest levels of anxiety, stress, and loneliness at baseline, while following the recommendations is lowest for those with moderate levels of these variables). These U shapes, which are robust to several specifications, may explain some of the ambiguous results reported in the previous literature. Additionally, we observe a U-shaped association between the mental health indicators and a number of specific health behaviours (including washing hands and mask wearing). Importantly, most of these specific behaviours play a role in overall compliance. Finally, we uncover the role of gender composition effects in some of the results. While variations in depression and stress are negatively associated with variations in overall compliance for men, the association is positive for women. The U-shaped relation in the full sample (composed of males and females) will reflect first the negative slope for males and then the positive slope for females.

Page de couverture Les démocraties peinent à répondre à la crise climatique. Une approche prometteuse pour la transition écologique repose sur des innovations impliquant des panels de citoyens tirés au sort. De nombreux pays ont expérimenté cette forme de démocratie délibérative au niveau national et local. Ces assemblées de citoyens formulent des propositions de politiques publiques. La Convention citoyenne pour le climat en France constitue le dispositif le plus important en termes de taille, de durée et de mandat. Grâce à une enquête de terrain multidisciplinaire impliquant une vingtaine de chercheurs, cet ouvrage permet de comprendre la complexité de cette expérience sous plusieurs angles : les procédures et le processus, l’identité et les rôles de ses membres, les rapports à l’expertise et aux représentants, l’évaluation et la comparaison avec d’autres cas. Démocratie délibérative et transition écologique offre une contribution majeure à la réflexion sur une pratique originale d’innovation démocratique et sur son potentiel pour une gouvernance juste des politiques climatiques.

It is well-known that unemployment leaves scars after re-employment, but does this scarring effect persist even after retirement? We analyse European data on retirees from the SHARE panel, and show that the well-being of the retired continues to reflect the unemployment that they experienced over their working life. These scarring effects are somewhat smaller for older retirees, but larger for those who arguably had higher expectations regarding the labour market when they were active. The lower well-being from lifetime unemployment does not reflect lower retirement income. This long-run scarring for those who have left the labour market underlines that contemporaneous correlations significantly under-estimate the well-being cost of unemployment.

The distribution of job quality across workers and the change in job quality over time can be reflected in various measures of job outcomes, or single-item job-satisfaction scores. This paper takes both approaches to establish the evolution of job quality over a period from the mid-1990s to the mid-2010s in 13 OECD countries, using data from the three latest ISSP Work Orientation modules. The rise in job satisfaction from 1997 to 2005 has continued through 2015, despite the 2008 Great Recession. This improvement is also found in most of the joboutcome domains, despite some evidence of harder and more stressful work. Workers reported that job security was the most-important job aspect every year, and the percentage of workers with secure jobs rose over time. There has been a small rise in the dispersion of job satisfaction, but the good news regarding better job quality over a 20-year period does not seem to be dampened by large changes in its inequality.

L’article est consacré à l’organisation des scrutins et au comptage des voix dans trois cas de complexité croissante : La répartition des sièges entre pays (exemple du Parlement Européen), la répartition des sièges entre partis politiques, et le choix des projets dans le cas d’un budget participatif. Ces questions techniques mettent en œuvre des concepts fondamentaux de philosophie morale et politique à la manière de la philosophie économique, en particulier les arbitrages entre efficacité et égalité.

Under incomplete contracts, the mutual belief in reciprocity facilitates how traders create value through economic exchange. Creating such beliefs among strangers can be challenging even when they are allowed to communicate, because communication is cheap. In this paper, we first extend the literature showing that a truth-telling oath increases honesty to a sequential trust game with pre-play, fixed-form, and cheap-talk communication. Our results confirm that the oath creates more trust and cooperative behavior thanks to an improvement in communication; but we also show that the oath induces selection into communication -it makes people more wary of using communication, precisely because communication speaks louder under oath. We next designed additional treatments featuring mild and deterrent fines for deception to measure the monetary equivalent of the non-monetary incentives implemented by a truth-telling oath. We find that the oath is behaviorally equivalent to mild fines. The deterrent fine induces the highest level of cooperation. Altogether, these results confirm that allowing for interactions under oath within a trust game with communication creates significantly more economic value than the identical exchange institutions without the oath.

Du matin au soir, nous faisons toutes sortes de choix : conduire ou prendre le vélo, aller au supermarché ou à l’épicerie. Si ces décisions quotidiennes s’enchaînent souvent sans même qu’on en ait conscience, elles s’ajoutent à des décisions dont les enjeux sont autrement plus importants, qu’ils soient économiques, financiers, ou d’ordre environnemental, sociologique et culturel. Quels processus de décision se cachent derrière les réalités sociales qui déterminent le fonctionnement de l’économie ? Comment définir les coûts et les bénéfices entre lesquels nous devons arbitrer ? Pourquoi même l’absence de choix est-elle une forme de décision ? Comment les décisions individuelles se combinent-elles avec les décisions collectives ? Quelle est la palette d’outils permettant d’orienter les comportements ? L’économie comportementale apporte des réponses à ces questions en étudiant les décisions économiques à travers le prisme de facteurs rationnels, la comparaison des coûts et des bénéfices, mais aussi psychologiques, tels que les ressources cognitives, le contexte et le comportement des pairs.

L’article est consacré à l’organisation des scrutins et au comptage des voix dans trois cas de complexité croissante : La répartition des sièges entre pays (exemple du Parlement Européen), la répartition des sièges entre partis politiques, et le choix des projets dans le cas d’un budget participatif. Ces questions techniques mettent en œuvre des concepts fondamentaux de philosophie morale et politique à la manière de la philosophie économique, en particulier les arbitrages entre efficacité et égalité.

Longtemps confinée à l’efficacité de la protection des droits de propriété nécessaires aux échanges de marché, l’analyse économique du droit trouve en grande partie ses origines dans la nécessité de pallier les défaillances de marché associées à la remise en cause des conditions qui rendent leur fonctionnement efficace. Cette branche de l’économie s’intéresse en particulier à la capacité de différentes règles juridiques à corriger les inefficacités structurelles qui en découlent, par exemple en matière de comportements de prévention des risques liés aux activités humaines ou encore de comportements délictuels. Les développements récents de l’économie comportementale apportent un éclairage nouveau sur la réponse des acteurs de l’économie aux règles qui leur sont appliquées, et conduisent en particulier à un renouvellement profond des recommandations de l’économie en matière d’élaboration des règles de droit. Cet article en présente un panorama, appliqué notamment aux régimes de responsabilité civile et aux modalités d’application de la politique pénale.

Information on both wages and job quality is needed in order to understand the occupational dispersion of wellbeing. We analyse subjective wellbeing in a large UK sample to construct a measure of ‘overall reward’, the sum of wages and the value of job quality, in 90 different occupations. If only wages are included, then labour market inequality is underestimated: the dispersion of overall rewards is one‐third larger than the dispersion of wages. Our findings are similar, and stronger, in data on US workers. We find a positive correlation between job quality and wages in all specifications, both between individuals in the cross‐section and within individuals in panel data. The gender and ethnic gaps in the labour market are larger than those in wages alone, and the overall rewards to education on the labour market are underestimated by earnings differentials alone.

There is much still to learn about the relationship between income and well-being, and in particular how this may depend on the economic and social context. We use Russian data to estimate individual Welfare Functions of Income, and examine two potentially context-dependent concepts: self-assessed income needs and welfare sensitivity to income (how well-being changes with income). The considerable geographical diversity in Russia provides within-country variation in GDP, inequality, population density, and unemployment. We first show that income needs exceed actual income on average in Russia, and that these needs are less sensitive to changes in income than in other countries. Second, income needs vary by individual characteristics, while welfare sensitivity does not. Welfare sensitivity is however related to the regional context. Last, our estimated contextual results help us to understand why the existing literature has produced such a wide range of results.

We use Australian panel data to examine the impact of retirement on individual locus of control, a socio-emotional skill with substantial explanatory power for a broad range of life outcomes. Exploiting the eligibility age for the Australian Age Pension, we find that retirement leads to increased internal locus of control. This greater internal control explains around one-third and one-fifth of the positive effects of retirement on health and subjective well-being, respectively. We also show that locus of control is much more malleable at retirement than the other socio-emotional skills of the Big-Five personality traits, risk and time preferences, and trust.

Dans le football, la multipropriété de clubs (en anglais multi-club ownership – MCO) concerne aussi bien des propriétaires individuels, des groupes ou des clubs. C’est un phénomène plutôt récent qui date de la fin des années 1990, mais qui semble prendre de l’ampleur dans le football aujourd’hui. Économiquement, cette évolution de la MCO s’inscrit dans une logique de fusions-acquisitions d’entreprises qui est une pratique courante dans une économie de marché. Elles peuvent alors être « horizontales » (rachat de clubs de même niveau), « verticales » (rachat de clubs formateurs), ou encore viser une « extension du marché » (rachat de clubs d’autres régions). D’un point de vue sportif, cette pratique pose des problèmes évidents de conflit d’intérêts, si deux équipes d’une MCO sont amenées à se rencontrer dans une même compétition. L’UEFA (Union of European Football Associations) a (pour l’instant) réglé ces problèmes d’éthique sportive avec la jurisprudence Red Bull basée sur son concept d’« influence décisive » d’un club sur un autre. Classification JEL :

Declining levels of turnout and growing distrust in political elites are often seen as symptoms of a crisis of representative democracy. Various proposals of reform have been made to reinvigorate representation and political participation. This paper focuses on one aspect of that debate: finding an alternative to FPTP, which is the electoral rule most frequently used in single-member districts, but which is criticized, among others, for allowing only a limited expression of voters’ preferences. Many alternative rules are in use or have been suggested, such as Two-Round majority, Instant Runoff, Approval Voting, Majority Judgement, or Range Voting. The literature on these decision rules has concentrated on their formal properties. Yet, we know surprisingly little about how frequently these rules would lead to different outcomes in normal electoral settings. This paper improves our understanding of these rules by examining their mechanical effects. We start from data on voters’ party utilities from “real-world” settings, based on CSES data. This allows simulating and comparing the outcomes of different electoral rules under a variety of distributions of voters’ party preferences. We then analyze how frequently they lead to different outcomes and identify the contextual characteristics that explain these differences. For the latter question, we focus on a number of party system or electorate’s characteristics, which have been highlighted in debates on challenges to representation (such as ideological polarization, party system fragmentation, or affective polarization).

A model that only focuses on economic relations, and in which efficiency and equity are defined in terms of resource allocation may miss an important part of the picture. We propose a canonical extension of the standard general equilibrium model that embeds economic activities in a larger game of social interactions. Such a model combines general equilibrium effects with social multiplier effects and considerably enriches the analysis of efficiency and equity. Efficiency involves coordination between economic and social interactions, may depend on social norms, and may strongly interact with the distribution of resources. Equity can be defined in a comprehensive, socioeconomic way, and a decomposition into an economic and a social component is possible.

Objectives: Consideration of future consequences (CFC) distinguishes individuals who adopt behaviors based on immediate needs and concerns from individuals who consider the future consequences of their behaviors. We aimed to assess the association between CFC and diet, and testing the mediating role of food choice motives on this relationship. Design: Individuals (age≥18 years) completed the CFC-12 questionnaire in 2014, at least three 24-h dietary records, and a food choice motive questionnaire. A multiple mediator analysis allowed to assess the mediating effect of food choice motives on the cross-sectional association between CFC and diet, adjusted for socio-demographic factors. Setting: Data from the NutriNet-Santé cohort study. Participants: 27,330 participants. Results: CFC was associated with all food choice motives (P < 0.001), with the strongest positive associations for avoidance for environmental reasons, absence of contaminants and health motives, and the strongest negative associations for innovation and convenience). Positive total effects were found between CFC and the consumption of healthy food groups (fruits and vegetables, whole-grain foods, legumes); and negative total effects for alcohol, meat and poultry and processed meat (P < 0.001). CFC was positively associated with diet quality (P < 0.001). Across food groups, major mediators of these relationships were higher health (8.4-32.6%), higher environmental (13.7-22.1 %) and lower innovation (7.3-25.1 %) concerns. Conclusions: CFC was associated with healthier dietary intake, essentially mediated by a greater motivation of future-oriented participants for self-centered and altruistic outcomes, including health and environment. Focusing on the awareness of future benefits in public health interventions might lead to healthier dietary behaviors.

What drives voters’ decisions to participate in large elections under costly voting, despite the rational expectation that this has no impact on the outcome? We propose a new model of ethical voters, by positing that they have Kantian or semi-Kantian preferences. With such preferences, voters evaluate their behavior in light of what the outcome would be, should a fraction of the other voters choose the same course of action. The “other voters” can be either the entire population (“non-partisan ethics”) or the individuals with same interest (“partisan ethics”). In a model with two candidates and a continuum of voters, we find that turnout is strictly positive as soon as the evaluation by the voters of the political outcome is not strictly of the “winner-take-all” kind. Moreover, the equilibrium turnout rates depend on the specifics of the election at hand, such as the relative stake of the election for the two supporter groups and the presence of core constituent groups.

We here evaluate the link between job insecurity and one of the most-important decisions that individuals take: homeownership. The 1999 rise in the French Delalande tax on firms that laid off older workers produced an unexpected exogenous rise in job insecurity for younger workers. A difference-in-differences analysis of panel data from the European Community Household Panel shows that this greater job insecurity significantly reduced the probability of becoming a homeowner. This drop seems more attributable to individual preferences rather than greater capital constraints, consistent with individuals reducing their exposure to long-term financial commitments in more-uncertain environments.

Many authors argue that candidates are more popular among voters from their own region. Two potential explanations have been suggested: voters’ identification with their home region, and the representation of regional interests. The information on candidates’ residence can be transmitted to voters in different ways, the most easily accessible way being information printed on the ballot paper. However, most studies on “friends and neighbour voting” use aggregate data. Studies that rely on individual level data usually put respondents in hypothetical situations and confront them with synthetic candidates, reducing their realism. To bridge this gap and to test the effect of providing information on the candidates’ residence, we use data from a survey experiment to analyze voters’ responses to ballot paper information on the regional background of real candidates in the 2014 European election in Germany. We find that voters in an open list PR election are more likely to support regional candidates if ballot paper information on the candidates’ geographic background helps them to do so. The appeal of personal ties is a stronger explanation for vote preference than the one based on regional interests.

We carry out a difference-in-differences analysis of a representative real-time survey conducted as part of the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) study and show that teleworking had a negative average effect on life satisfaction over the first two years of the COVID-19 pandemic. This average effect hides considerable heterogeneity reflecting genderrole asymmetry: lower life satisfaction is only found for unmarried men and women with school-age children. The negative effect for women with school-age children disappears in 2021, suggesting adaptation to new constraints and/or the adoption of coping strategies.

When two cognitive processes contribute to a behavioral output—each process producing a specific distribution of the behavioral variable of interest—and when the mixture proportion of these two processes varies as a function of an experimental condition, a common density point should be present in the observed distributions of the data across said conditions. In principle, one can statistically test for the presence (or absence) of a fixed point in experimental data to provide evidence in favor of (or against) the presence of a mixture of processes, whose proportions are affected by an experimental manipulation. In this paper, we provide an empirical diagnostic of this test to detect a mixture of processes. We do so using resampling of real experimental data under different scenarios, which mimic variations in the experimental design suspected to affect the sensitivity and specificity of the fixed-point test (i.e., mixture proportion, time on task, and sample size). Resampling such scenarios with real data allows us to preserve important features of data which are typically observed in real experiments while maintaining tight control over the properties of the resampled scenarios. This is of particular relevance considering such stringent assumptions underlying the fixed-point test. With this paper, we ultimately aim at validating the fixed-point property of binary mixture data and at providing some performance metrics to researchers aiming at testing the fixed-point property on their experimental data.

There is much still to learn about the relationship between income and well-being, and in particular how this may depend on the economic and social context. We use Russian data to estimate individual Welfare Functions of Income, and examine two potentially context-dependent concepts: self-assessed income needs and welfare sensitivity to income (how well-being changes with income). The considerable geographical diversity in Russia provides within-country variation in GDP, inequality, population density, and unemployment. We first show that income needs exceed actual income on average in Russia, and that these needs are less sensitive to changes in income than in other countries. Second, income needs vary by individual characteristics, while welfare sensitivity does not. Welfare sensitivity is however related to the regional context. Last, our estimated contextual results help us to understand why the existing literature has produced such a wide range of results

L’homogamie économique est un phénomène largement documenté, qui est souvent interprété comme résultant d’une préférence pour l’entre-soi. Pourtant, les caractéristiques des conjoints dans un ménage conditionnent non seulement leur satisfaction à être ensemble mais également leurs décisions de division du travail. Nous présentons dans cet article une approche qui englobe à la fois le processus de formation des couples, le partage des ressources au sein du ménage, et la complémentarité des conjoints dans les activités du couple. Appliquée à l’Allemagne entre 2013 et 2019, cette approche montre que l’homogamie salariale est concentrée dans le haut de la distribution, que l’éducation a un poids très important dans les complémentarités des conjoints, et que le salaire et l’éducation jouent un rôle similaire dans les modalités de partage du revenu du ménage.

It is well-known that the wealthier are more likely to have Right-leaning political preferences. We here in addition consider the role of the individual’s starting position, and in particular their upward social mobility relative to their parents. In 18 waves of UK panel data, both own and parental social status are independently positively associated with Rightleaning voting and political preferences: given their own social status, the upwardly-mobile are therefore more Left-wing.We investigate a number of potential mediators: these results do not reflect the relationship between well-being and own and parents’ social status, but are partly linked to the individual’s beliefs about how fair society is. We replicate these findings using US data and show that, in both countries, the choice of specification when controlling for the respondent’s own status is crucial and may help explain some of the mixed findings in the literature.

Ce troisième rapport de l’Observatoire du bien-être au Cepremap rend compte des évolutions qui ont marqué la vie des Français au cours de l’année écoulée. Au premier plan des préoccupations des Français, les chocs de l’inflation et de la guerre en Ukraine se conjuguent avec le réchauffement climatique pour nourrir une forte inquiétude vis-à-vis de l’avenir. Cette anxiété s’ajoute à la tendance structurelle au pessimisme des Français. Cette dernière se lit d’ailleurs dans la manière dont ils se représentent leur société et sa stratification, souvent en décalage avec la perception de leur propre situation, ce qui fait apparaître un étonnant mélange de malheur public et de bonheur privé. Parallèlement, la société se transforme, notamment le monde professionnel, avec l’installation durable du travail à distance dans les pratiques. C’est au prisme du bien-être subjectif que nous analysons ces différentes tendances de la société française.

There is a common feeling that life has become more insecure over time. I here consider this proposition with respect to the labor market. I first discuss how labor-market insecurity might be measured, and then its potential consequences for individuals. To answer the question of “What Happened,” I then review a number of pieces of evidence regarding developments in the labor market, and perhaps surprisingly find no consistent support for the proposition that the labor market has become significantly more insecure.

Les prix alimentaires augmentent de manière importante depuis maintenant plus d’une année. Les résultats provisoires publiés par l’Insee en janvier 2023 montrent une hausse de 13,2 % depuis janvier 2022, plus du double de la hausse de l’indice des prix (+6 %) et un peu moins que le prix de l’énergie (+16 %) [1]. Les données détaillées publiées par l’institut IRI montrent que les hausses de prix touchent particulièrement les aliments de base et les produits dits de « fond de placard », comme les huiles, le riz, le sucre ou les steaks hachés [2]. Les prix des produits « premiers prix » et de marques de distributeurs augmentent plus fortement que celui des marques nationales (+17,8 % pour les premier set +11,6 % pour les secondes [3]), probablement à cause de marges plus faibles qui obligent à transmettre plus directement la hausse des coûts des approvisionnements sur le prix final. Les déterminants de ces hausses de prix sont multiples et bien identifiés. Ils tiennent, tout d’abord, à des chocs sur la production agricole et alimentaire au niveau international et sur la logistique des chaînes de distribution : guerre en Ukraine, disruption des chaînes logistiques liées à la pandémie du Covid-19 et aux tensions géopolitiques, impacts de catastrophes météorologiques liées au réchauffement climatique comme les inondations au Pakistan. Ensuite, la croissance de la demande alimentaire de certains pays, notamment la Chine, déstabilise structurellement les marchés agro-alimentaires, en partie du fait de la politique du gouvernement chinois qui vise à assurer la sécurité alimentaire par la constitution de stocks et sans coordination avec les autres pays [4]. Quelles peuvent être les conséquences de ces hausses de prix brutales sur les choix des consommateurs franc¸ais, notamment les plus défavorisés ?

The significant gains in life expectancy at advanced ages that have been recorded over recent decades, combined with the arrival of the baby boom generations at old age, suggest a rapid growth in the costs of long-term care. This perspective fuels debates on the most suitable method for financing the loss of autonomy: in the absence of sufficiently broad insurance coverage and given the difficulty of evaluating both the probability of becoming dependent and the attendant costs, the risk is high that households will not save enough. This article addresses the issue: by drawing on data from the 2020 wave of the Pat€r survey, we evaluate to what extent households adapt their savings effort in function of their estimation of the probability that they will lose their autonomy on the medical level. To this end, we estimate household assets according to their own assessment of the risk of becoming dependent one day, controlling notably for their self-reported health status. To account for the possible endogeneity of expected dependency risk on household savings (people save less if their health is poor), we use instrumental variable estimation methods. Our results confirm that people with a higher self-assessment of the risk of becoming dependent accumulate more assets: measured at the average self-assessed risk, an increase of this risk by one standard deviation is associated with an increase in overall gross wealth of three to eight months of permanent income.

Climate policy is often described by economists as an intertemporal consumption trade-off: consume all you want today and face climate damages in the future, or sacrifice consumption today to implement costly climate policies that will bring future benefits through avoided climate damages. If one assumes enduring technological progress, a society that is more averse to intertemporal inequalities should postpone climate policies and let future, richer generations pay more. Growing evidence however suggests that the trade-off is more complex: abrupt, extreme, irreversible changes to the climate may cause discontinuities to socio-economic systems, possibly leading to a sharp decline of human population and consumption per capita. In this paper, we show that, when accounting for a very small risk of catastrophic climate change, it is optimal to pursue stringent climate policies to postpone the catastrophe. Our results conform with the well-known conclusion that tight carbon budgets are preferred when aversion towards inequalities between generations is low. However, by contrast with previous studies, we show that stringent policies are also optimal when inequality aversion is high. The non-monotonicity of the influence of inequality aversion is due to the fact that, for a given investment in abatement, a higher inequality aversion gives a smaller weight to avoided future non-catastrophic damages, but a larger weight to the catastrophic outcome. We also explore the role of population ethics, and show that the size of the optimal carbon budget decreases with the social preference for large populations, although this parameter plays almost no role at extreme levels of inequality aversion. Our result demonstrates that views from opposite sides of the ethical spectrum in terms of inequality aversion converge in terms of climate policy recommendations, warranting immediate climate action.

We study the measurement of well-being when individuals have heterogeneous preferences, including dierent conceptions of a life worth living. When individuals dier in the conception of a life worth living, the equivalent income can regard an individual whose life is not worth living as being better o than an individual whose life is worth living. In order to avoid this paradoxical result, we reexamine the ethical foundations of well-being measures in such a way as to take into account heterogeneity in the conception of a life worth living. We derive, from simple axioms, an alternative measure of well-being, which is an equivalent income net of the income threshold making lifetime neutral. That new well-being index always ranks an individual whose life is not worth living as worse-o than an individual with a life worth living.

This article proposes a new approach to the measurement of intergenerational mobility in education. Borrowing the concept of inequality-sensitive and additive achievement measure axiomatically developed by Apouey et al., we derive new indices of upward, downward, and total mobility, using a « movement approach. » It turns out that the Prais-Bibby and Bartholomew mobility indices are particular cases of the mobility indices we introduce. We then present an empirical illustration based on the 2016 European Social Survey. Particular attention is given to within country differences between fathers to children and mothers to children educational mobility. When comparing two countries, we also make a distinction between gross and net mobility, the latter referring to the case where country differences in the educational structure of parents and children are neutralized.

Nous étudions l’impact de la politique d’envoi aux assurés d’une information personnalisée sur leur retraite, introduite par la réforme de 2003 (le droit à l’information, DAI), sur l’amélioration de la connaissance qu’ont ces derniers de leurs droits à retraite et sur l’évolution de leur inquiétude concernant le montant de leur pension future. En mobilisant les données des vagues 2012 et 2020 de l’enquête Pat€r, nous montrons que la connaissance des droits à la retraite s’est améliorée et que l’inquiétude sur le montant des pensions s’est réduite entre 2012 et 2020. L’impact des envois d’information dans le cadre du DAI est difficile à isoler de celui de l’évolution du contexte général entre 2012 et 2020. Les résultats obtenus suggérent toutefois un léger effet positif de la politique du DAI sur la connaissance avec le premier envoi de documents et un effet indirect sur la réduction de l’inquiétude via l’amélioration de la connaissance.

Comment expliquer économiquement le passage du people’s game au global game ? Pourquoi Manchester City, par exemple, dont les origines se trouvent dans un paternalisme paroissial à St Mark’s peut adopter aujourd’hui une stratégie de domination mondiale du football à travers le City Football Group ? La réponse à ces questions est bien entendu plurielle et s’appuie sur une histoire non linéaire. Le football connait un fort succès populaire depuis ses origines jusqu’aux années 1950-1960. Le beautiful game entre ensuite dans sa période « sombre » pour différentes raisons : récession des années 1980, vétusté des stades, hooliganisme, entre autres. La « renaissance » à partir des années 1990 se nourrit notamment de la création de la Premier League, de la très forte croissance des droits TV et de la mondialisation du football anglais.

We here address the causal relationship between the maternal genetic risk for depression and child human capital using UK birth-cohort data. We find that an increase of one standard deviation (SD) in the maternal polygenic risk score for depression reduces their children’s cognitive and non-cognitive skill scores by 5 to 7% of a SD throughout adolescence. Our results are robust to a battery of sensitivity tests addressing, among others, concerns about pleiotropy and dynastic effects. Our Gelbach decomposition analysis suggests that the strongest mediator is genetic nurture (through maternal depression itself), with genetic inheritance playing only a marginal role.

Standard models of decision-making assume each option is associated with subjective value, regardless of whether this value is inferred from experience (experiential) or explicitly instructed probabilistic outcomes (symbolic). In this study, we present results that challenge the assumption of unified representation of experiential and symbolic value. Across nine experiments, we presented participants with hybrid decisions between experiential and symbolic options. Participants’ choices exhibited a pattern consistent with a systematic neglect of the experiential values. This normatively irrational decision strategy held after accounting for alternative explanations, and persisted even when it bore an economic cost. Overall, our results demonstrate that experiential and symbolic values are not symmetrically considered in hybrid decisions, suggesting they recruit different representational systems that may be assigned different priority levels in the decision process. These findings challenge the dominant models commonly used in value-based decision-making research.

The kappa-universalization of a symmetric game is the game in which each player considers that any other player chooses with probability kappa the same stategy as she. To any normal form game, we associate the symmetric two-stage game in which, in a first stage, the roles to be played in the base game are randomly assigned. We show that any pure strategy equilibrium of the kappa-universalization of this extended game is an equilibrium of the base game played by altruistic players (« ex ante Homo Moralis equilibrium is altruistic »), and that the converse is false. The paper presents the implications of this remark for the philosophical nature of ethical behavior (Kantianism behind the veil of ignorance implies but is stronger than altruism) and for its evolutionary foundations.

Using the American and the French time-use surveys, we examine whether people have a preference for a more diversified mix of activities, in the sense that they experience greater well-being when their time schedule contains many different activities rather than is concentrated on a very small number. This could be due to decreasing marginal utility, as is assumed for goods consumption, if each episode of time is conceived as yielding a certain level of utility per se. With returns to specialization, people would then face a trade-off between efficiency and diversity in choosing how to allocate time. We examine these issues and investigate potential gender differences, considering both instantaneous feelings and life satisfaction.

Public health authorities advocate the introduction of alcohol pricing policies in the form of tax reform and/or a minimum unit price based on the pure alcohol content of products. We use Kantar WorldPanel household purchase data to describe the distortions in the current tax system, favouring wine and penalising low-income households. We assess the potential impact of reform sce­narios that replace current taxes with a single excise tax (flat or progressive) on pure alcohol content and/or the introduction of a minimum price per gram of pure alcohol. Introducing a minimum price while leaving taxation unchanged would have the advantage of raising alcohol prices, especially for low-end wines, which are prized by abusive consumers. The impact would a priori be limited in terms of tax regressivity and for higher quality segments, which is important for the wine sector.

This paper provides one of the first tests of adaptation to the complete set of residential transitions. We use long-run SOEP panel data and consider the impact of all housing transitions, whether or not they involve a change in housing tenure or geographical movement, on both life satisfaction and housing satisfaction. Controlling for individual characteristics, some residential transitions affect life satisfaction only little, while all transitions have a significant effect on housing satisfaction. This latter is particularly large for renters who become homeowners and move geographically, and for renters who move without changing tenure status. Regarding housing satisfaction, we only uncover evidence of some adaptation for renter-renter moves. Losing homeowner status is the only transition that produces lower housing satisfaction, and here the effect seems to become even more negative over time.

La psyché des individus est-elle susceptible de changer pendant les crises ? Inversement, pour paraphraser Stigler et Becker [1977], les préférences individuelles sont-elles « solides comme un roc », en d’autres termes stables temporellement ? Même si théoriquement, les économistes privilégient la stabilité des préférences sur l’instabilité, savoir si des chocs, qu’ils soient démographiques, sanitaires, naturels, conflictuels ou économiques, sont susceptibles de modifier les paramètres de goût des individus et, en conséquence, leur comportement, est une question importante en matière de politique publique. De nombreux travaux empiriques cherchent aujourd’hui à tester si les préférences évoluent, ou non, dans le temps, ou encore si elles sont durablement modifiées par des événements de la vie ou des chocs structurels auxquels sont confrontés les individus. Les conclusions dépendent de l’origine des chocs, de la méthodologie adoptée pour mesurer les préférences et de la nature des questions posées. Le choc de la pandémie de la Covid-19 de 2020 est une nouvelle opportunité pour étudier cette question de la stabilité des goûts. Il existe déjà de nombreuses études qui ont analysé l’impact de la crise de la Covid sur les épargnants mais qui n’aboutissent à aucun consensus sur le sens de l’impact de la crise sanitaire sur les préférences. Pour la France, les traitements statistiques réalisés ici à partir de l’enquête Pat€r 2020 montrent plutôt une stabilité des préférences vis-à-vis du risque : le « grand confinement » n’aurait ainsi eu que peu d’impact sur les préférences de l’épargnant.

Job insecurity is one of the risks that workers face on the labour market. As with any risk, individuals can choose to insure against it, and we here consider marriage as one potential source of this insurance. The 1999 rise in the French Delalande tax, paid by larger private firms when they laid off workers aged 50 or over, led to an exogenous rise in job insecurity for the uncovered (younger workers) in these larger firms. A difference-in-differences analysis using French panel data reveals that this greater job insecurity for the under-50s led to a significant rise in their probability of marriage, and especially when the partner had greater job security, consistent with marriage providing insurance against labour-market risk.

Encompassing chapters that address both unidimensional and multidimensional poverty, this timely Research Handbook explores all aspects of poverty and deprivation measurement, not only detailing broad issues but also scrutinising specific domains and aspects of poverty, such as health, energy and housing. Its succinct and highly focussed chapters, written by a diverse range of authors, employ a combination of theoretical and empirical methodologies to offer well-rounded explorations of complex topics.

The paper provides a theoretical sports league model to study the pricing of tickets. It considers the trade-off between maximizing match day revenues, through high prices, and maximizing the support of the most demonstrative fans, through low prices. These spectators, the “ultras” contribute to the competitive level of the club along with team-level talent, and therefore indirectly increase the number of victories, hence the revenue from TV rights. We model the role of effusive spectators and show that, in a non-cooperative Nash equilibrium, it may be optimal for the club to subsidize their presence in order to take full advantage of the 12th man effect.

We study the impact of work from home (WFH) on subjective well‐being during the Covid period, where self‐selection of individuals into telework is ruled out, at least part of the time, by stay‐at‐home orders. We use a difference‐in‐differences approach with individual fixed effects and identify the specific impact of switching to telecommuting, separately from any other confounding factor. In particular, our identification strategy avoids the influence of interpersonal heterogeneity by exploiting the multiple entries into WFH, by the same individuals, at different times. On average over the period, switching to WFH, especially full‐time, worsens mental health. We also find a positive but imprecisely measured impact of part‐time WFH on life satisfaction. However, this hides a dynamic evolution, whereby the initial deterioration gives place to an adaptation process after a couple of months. We also uncover a particularly pronounced fall in subjective well‐being of women with children, especially in the first months; this could be associated with home‐schooling.

While navigating a fundamentally uncertain world, humans and animals constantly evaluate the probability of their decisions, actions or statements being correct. When explicitly elicited, these confidence estimates typically correlates positively with neural activity in a ventromedial-prefrontal (VMPFC) network and negatively in a dorsolateral and dorsomedial prefrontal network. Here, combining fMRI with a reinforcement-learning paradigm, we leverage the fact that humans are more confident in their choices when seeking gains than avoiding losses to reveal a functional dissociation: whereas the dorsal prefrontal network correlates negatively with a condition-specific confidence signal, the VMPFC network positively encodes task-wide confidence signal incorporating the valence-induced bias. Challenging dominant neuro-computational models, we found that decision-related VMPFC activity better correlates with confidence than with option-values inferred from reinforcement-learning models. Altogether, these results identify the VMPFC as a key node in the neuro-computational architecture that builds global feeling-of-confidence signals from latent decision variables and contextual biases during reinforcement-learning.

Nationalism has trumped solidarity, resulting in unnecessary loss of life and inequitable access to vaccines and therapeutics. Existing intellectual property (IP) regimens, trade secrets and data rights, under which pharmaceutical firms operate, have also posed obstacles to increasing manufacturing capacity, and ensuring adequate supply, affordable pricing, and equitable access to COVID-19 vaccines and other health products in low-income and middle- income countries. We propose: (1) Implementing alternative incentive and funding mechanisms to develop new scientific innovations to address infectious diseases with pandemic potential; (2) Voluntary and involuntary initiatives to overcome IP barriers including pooling IP, sharing data and vesting licences for resulting products in a globally agreed entity; (3) Transparent and accountable collective procurement to enable equitable distribution; (4) Investments in regionally distributed research and development (R&D) capacity and manufacturing, basic health systems to expand equitable access to essential health technologies, and non-discriminatory national distribution; (5) Commitment to strengthen national (and regional) initiatives in the areas of health system development, health research, drug and vaccine manufacturing and regulatory oversight and (6) Good governance of the pandemic prevention, preparedness and response accord. It is important to articulate principles for deals that include reasonable access conditions and transparency in negotiations. We argue for an equitable, transparent, accountable new global agreement to provide rewards for R&D but only on the condition that pharmaceutical companies share the IP rights necessary to produce and distribute them globally. Moreover, if countries commit to collective procurement and fair pricing of resulting products, we argue that we can greatly improve our ability to prepare for and respond to pandemic threats.

Purpose The authors track the well-being of individuals across five European countries during the course of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and relate their well-being to working from home. The authors also consider the role of pandemic-policy stringency in affecting well-being in Europe. Design/methodology/approach The authors have four waves of novel harmonised longitudinal data in France, Italy, Germany, Spain and Sweden, covering the period May–November 2020. Well-being is measured in five dimensions: life satisfaction, a worthwhile life, loneliness, depression and anxiety. A retrospective diary indicates whether the individual was working in each month since February 2020 and if so whether at home or not at home. Policy stringency is matched in per country at the daily level. The authors consider both cross-section and panel regressions and the mediating and moderating effects of control variables, including household variables and income. Findings Well-being among workers is lower for those who work from home, and those who are not working have the lowest well-being of all. The panel results are more mitigated, with switching into working at home yielding a small drop in anxiety. The panel and cross-section difference could reflect adaptation or the selection of certain types of individuals into working at home. Policy stringency is always negatively correlated with well-being. The authors find no mediation effects. The well-being penalty from working at home is larger for the older, the better-educated, those with young children and those with more crowded housing. Originality/value The harmonised cross-country panel data on individuals’ experiences during COVID-19 are novel. The authors relate working from home and policy stringency to multiple well-being measures. The authors emphasise the effect of working from home on not only the level of well-being but also its distribution.

We use annual data on over 150 countries between 2005 and 2018 to look at the relationship between subjective well-being (both cognitive and affective) and the Human Development Index (HDI). The HDI appears to be more closely related to cognitive than affective well-being. We also consider the relationships between the three HDI components (the Income, Health, and Education Indices) and well-being, and find that, on average, the Income Index has the strongest predictive power. Importantly, we find that the three HDI components only matter equally in Western and rich countries. Our analysis contributes to the discussion about cultural sensitivity in paradigms of societal development in two ways. We first show that differences in preferences toward development aims exist. Second, we propose a weighting procedure for a culturally-sensitive version of the HDI.

Confidence is typically defined as a subjective judgment about whether a decision is right. Decisions are based on sources of information that come from various cognitive domains and are processed in different brain systems. An unsettled question is whether the brain computes confidence in a similar manner whatever the domain or in a manner that would be idiosyncratic to each domain. To address this issue, human participants performed two tasks probing confidence in decisions made about the same material (history and geography statements), but based on different cognitive processes: semantic memory for deciding whether the statement was true or false, and duration perception for deciding whether the statement display was long or short. At the behavioral level, we found that the same factors (difficulty, accuracy, response time, and confidence in the preceding decision) predicted confidence judgments in both tasks. At the neural level, we observed using functional magnetic resonance imaging that confidence judgments in both tasks were associated to activity in the same brain regions: positively in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and negatively in a prefronto-parietal network. Together, these findings suggest the existence of a shared brain system that generates confidence judgments in a similar manner across cognitive domains.

We study the choice of multi-person bargaining protocols in the context of politics. In politics, citizens are increasingly involved in the design of democratic rules, for instance via referendums. If they support the rule that best serves their self-interest, the outcome inevitably advantages the largest group. In this paper, we challenge this pessimistic view with an original lab experiment, in which 252 subjects participated. In the first stage, these subjects experience elections under plurality and approval voting. In the second stage, they decide which rule they want to use for extra elections. We find that egalitarian values that subjects hold outside of the lab shape their choice of electoral rule in the second stage when a rule led to a fairer distribution of payoffs compared to the other one in the first stage. The implication is that people have consistent ‘value-driven preferences’ for decision rules.

La 23e édition de la Coupe du monde de football masculine se déroulera en 2026, organisée conjointement par les États-Unis, le Canada et le Mexique (projet «United 2026»). Les Américains accueilleront ainsi pour la seconde fois, après 1994, l’évènement le plus populaire de la planète. Pourtant, entre l’Amérique du Nord et le football, c’est loin d’être une histoire d’amour. Supplanté historiquement par le football américain et le base-ball, la notoriété internationale du soccer est surtout le fait des footballeuses, championnes du monde à quatre reprises. Pendant longtemps, l’image du football aux États-Unis a plutôt été associée à la fin de carrière des stars : Pelé, G. Best, J. Cruyff, parmi les plus célèbres, y ont joué. Or, certains observateurs pensent que cela est en train de changer : les stades aux États- Unis se remplissent de plus en plus pour les matchs du championnat national (la MLS), les grands clubs européens viennent toujours plus souvent y faire une tournée estivale, de jeunes joueurs américains sont transférés en Europe, etc. Même si les budgets sont encore loin de ceux des grands clubs européens, de nombreux investisseurs s’intéressent aujourd’hui aux franchises américaines : l’ancienne star du football anglais, D. Beckham, vient par exemple d’acquérir l’équipe de l’Inter Miami. Comme dans le volume 1 consacré au football européen, l’objectif est ici de décrire de manière synthétique l’économie du football (masculin et féminin) en Amérique du Nord, qui demeure très spécifique.

La psyché des individus est-elle susceptible de changer pendant les « crises » ? Ou inversement, pour paraphraser Stigler et Becker (1977), les préférences individuelles sont-elles « solides comme un roc », en d’autres termes, stables temporellement ? Même si théoriquement, les économistes privilégient la stabilité des préférences à l’instabilité, savoir si des « chocs », qu’ils soient démographiques, sanitaires, naturels, conflictuels ou économiques, sont susceptible de modifier les paramètres de goût des individus et en conséquence leurs comportements, est une question importante en matière de politique publique. De nombreux travaux empiriques cherchent aujourd’hui à tester si les préférences évoluent ou non dans le temps, ou encore si elles sont durablement modifiées par des événements de la vie ou des chocs structurels auxquels sont confrontés les individus. Les conclusions dépendent de l’origine des chocs, de la méthodologie adoptée pour mesurer les préférences et de la nature des questions posées. Le choc de la pandémie du Covid-19 de 2020 est une nouvelle opportunité pour étudier cette question de la stabilité des goûts. Il existe déjà de nombreuses études qui ont analysé l’impact de la crise du Covid sur les épargnants mais qui n’aboutissent à aucun consensus sur le sens de l’impact de la crise sanitaire sur les préférences. Pour la France, les traitements statistiques réalisés ici à partir de l’enquête Pat€r 2020 montrent plutôt une stabilité des préférences vis-à-vis du risque : le « grand confinement » n’aurait ainsi eu que peu d’impact sur les préférences de l’épargnant.

What utility notion—e.g. flow/lifetime, self/family-centered—do self-reported well-being (SWB) questions measure? Existing applications make different assumptions regarding the (i) life domains, (ii) time horizons, and (iii) other-regarding preferences captured by SWB data. To obtain relevant evidence, we ask survey respondents what they had in mind regarding (i)–(iii) when answering commonly used—life satisfaction, happiness, ladder—and new SWB questions. We find that respondents’ self-reports differ from researchers’ assumptions and differ across SWB questions and sociodemographic groups. At the same time, simple SWB-question wording tweaks are effective in moving self-reports toward desired interpretations. We outline actionable suggestions for SWB researchers.

This paper documents the persistence and diffusion of Soviet gender-equal norms, exploiting the 1990’s mass migration from the Former Soviet Union to Israel as a natural experiment. We track educational achievement and choices of an entire cohort, comparing gender gaps among Native students versus immigrants from FSU and other countries. We find evidence of vertical and horizontal diffusion of Soviet norms with respect to tertiary study field choice, especially those directly related to labor market occupations. In both traditionally male-dominated STEM fields and traditionally female “pink collar” jobs, such as education and social work, gender gaps are smallest among FSU immigrants. We show that these specific preferences are not explained by comparative advantages, as measured by early achievement. Finally, we show that among Natives the gender gap in field choice narrows with the presence of FSU immigrants, reflecting a shift in choice patterns of native women shift towards STEM and away from Pink collar study fields.

Si la rotation des entraîneurs de football suite à des mauvais résultats s’est fortement accélérée ces dernières années dans le big 5, l’efficacité de ces départs forcés est loin d’être prouvée.

Globalizing economies and long-distance trade rely on individuals from different cultural groups to negotiate agreement on what to give and take. In such settings, individuals often lack insight into what interaction partners deem fair and appropriate, potentially seeding misunderstandings, frustration, and conflict. Here, we examine how individuals decipher distinct rules of engagement and adapt their behavior to reach agreements with partners from other cultural groups. Modeling individuals as Bayesian learners with inequality aversion reveals that individuals, in repeated ultimatum bargaining with responders sampled from different groups, can be more generous than needed. While this allows them to reach agreements, it also gives rise to biased beliefs about what is required to reach agreement with members from distinct groups. Preregistered behavioral ( N = 420) and neuroimaging experiments ( N = 49) support model predictions: Seeking equitable agreements can lead to overly generous behavior toward partners from different groups alongside incorrect beliefs about prevailing norms of what is appropriate in groups and cultures other than one’s own.

The COVID-19 crisis and the policy responses to it have impacted many different areas of common concern including public health and the economy. This raises difficult questions about how to balance these concerns in making policy decisions. In this chapter, we review a number of tools that welfare economics offers for conceptualizing and studying such trade-offs. We argue that social welfare analysis is the most useful method for doing so. We show how concerns for the distributive and other effects of a policy on individual wellbeing can be evaluated using a Social Welfare Function (SWF) and survey some of the main features of such functions. As an illustration, we then use this approach to model and evaluate the implications for social welfare of the adoption of pandemic policies that vary in terms of the stringency of the controls that they impose on individual behaviour. Our model reveals how such evaluations not only are determined by empirical facts but may also depend on key judgments about the relative importance of the different determinants of individual wellbeing (health, income, longevity, and so on) and about the extent to which special concern should be given to the worse-off. In doing so, it illustrates how critical transparent modelling of these concerns is in developing responses to pandemics of this kind.

L’histoire dit qu’un match féminin mythique entre le club des Munitionnettes (du nom des ouvrières fabriquant des munitions) des Dick, Kerr Ladies de Preston et celui des St. Helen’s Ladies, en 1920 le jour du Boxing Day à Liverpool, a attiré 53 000 spectateurs. Un siècle plus tard, à Londres, le 31 juillet 2022, près de 90 000 fans assistent à la finale de l’Euro féminin entre l’Angleterre et l’Allemagne. Mais l’histoire séculaire des femmes et du football est loin d’avoir été un long fleuve tranquille même si le foot féminin est apparu dès le début du jeu à la fin du XIXe siècle. Jusqu’au milieu des années 1960, pour différentes raisons, les femmes ont été « écartées » des terrains un peu partout dans le monde. Aujourd’hui, elles tiennent peut-être leur revanche. Le football féminin fait l’objet de beaucoup d’intérêts, non seulement sportifs, mais aussi idéologiques, politiques et économiques… Le jeu FIFA a même intégré les championnats féminins anglais et français dans sa dernière version de 2023 ! Comparé à son homologue masculin, le foot féminin est encore une très petite « affaire » et le « gender pay gap » entre footballeuses et footballeurs dans les équipes nationales et les sélections internationales est considérable. L’objectif de ce livre est de fournir au lecteur des outils d’analyses pour mieux comprendre l’économie du football féminin.

Ferreras’s bicameral governance proposal for the corporation contributes to a recent wave of interest in democratizing the workplace. In this article, I connect this to a related ongoing movement in favor of the stakeholder approach to corporate purpose. I argue that this connection sheds light on, and may provide remedies for, some issues with the bicameral proposal: first, the risk of gridlock between the two parties in the dual governance structure; second, the indeterminacy of good management when shareholder primacy is abandoned. But I also note that shareholder primacy emerged spontaneously from structural features of the economy, so that special protection for the “good” firms is warranted, and that other key limitations of a market economy cannot be alleviated fully by democratizing the firm.

« Le progrès ? Disons que c’est une vision du monde où le présent devient plus important que le passé et fait espérer en l’avenir », nous dit le sociologue Jean Viard. C’est aussi « un désir et une certitude », selon le philosophe Pierre-Henri Tavoillot. Il « crée les conditions du bonheur », précise l’économiste Claudia Senik. Mais il est « piégé », nous alerte la philosophe et psychanalyste Cynthia Fleury. C’est pourquoi il nous faut « savoir le repenser », d’après Karine Safa, philo­sophe. Notamment en distinguant « le progrès comme un programme abstrait et les progrès dans la vie de tout un chacun », suggère Nicolas Bouzou, économiste. « Croire au progrès, c’était accepter de sacrifier du présent personnel pour fabriquer du futur collectif. En sommes-nous encore là ? » s’interroge le physicien Étienne Klein.

In a context of increasingly limited resources, a number of strategies, such as the adoption of decrementally cost-effective interventions (d-CEIs), which are both less clinically effective and less costly, could offer potential levers at enhancing both efficiency and equity in healthcare systems. These interventions are located in the SouthWest (S-W) quadrant of the cost-effectiveness plane, and have yet received little attention from researchers or HTA agencies as they are often perceived as per se « unethical » or « unacceptable », hence the reference sometimes made to the S-W quadrant as the ‘Far West’. The purpose of our paper is to investigate policy-makers’ willingness to adopt d-CEIs using a choice experiment. We use a two-stage pairwise DCE survey to elicit (i) preferences for d-CEIs’ attributes in forced choices and (ii) adoption preferences, i.e. the determinants of d-CEIs’ adoption (unforced choices). We investigate the effect (and trade-offs) between three attributes: health loss (very small to significant), reversibility defined as the possibility to switch back to usual care (from possible to hardly possible) and cost-savings (from 5% to 15% of a fixed budget). Such trade-offs are contextualized by using two sensitivity attributes: disease severity (low and moderate) and savings uncertainty (low and high). Our final sample consists of 180 respondents with 46.7% originating from France and the remaining respondents from other EU countries. All attributes’ levels have a significant effect in the two decision stages. The « health loss » attribute dominates in the first stage followed by « reversibility »: we calculate that decision-makers would require 28.3% increase of budget savings to be indifferent between a scenario of small versus significant health losses and 14.5% budget savings to be indifferent between a scenario of possible and hardly possible reversibility. In contrast, the « reversibility » attribute dominates in the second stage suggesting that anticipated regret may play a role in adoption decisions.

We systematically misjudge our own performance in simple economic tasks. First, we generally overestimate our ability to make correct choices-a bias called overconfidence. Second, we are more confident in our choices when we seek gains than when we try to avoid losses-a bias we refer to as the valence-induced confidence bias. Strikingly, these two biases are also present in reinforcement-learning (RL) contexts, despite the fact that outcomes are provided trial-by-trial and could, in principle, be used to recalibrate confidence judgments online. How confidence biases emerge and are maintained in reinforcement-learning contexts is thus puzzling and still unaccounted for. To explain this paradox, we propose that confidence biases stem from learning biases, and test this hypothesis using data from multiple experiments, where we concomitantly assessed instrumental choices and confidence judgments, during learning and transfer phases. Our results first show that participants’ choices in both tasks are best accounted for by a reinforcement-learning model featuring context-dependent learning and confirmatory updating. We then demonstrate that the complex, biased pattern of confidence judgments elicited during both tasks can be explained by an overweighting of the learned value of the chosen option in the computation of confidence judgments. We finally show that, consequently, the individual learning model parameters responsible for the learning biases-confirmatory updating and outcome context-dependency-are predictive of the individual metacognitive biases. We conclude suggesting that the metacognitive biases originate from fundamentally biased learning computations.

Studying quasi-experimental data from French hospitals from 2010 to 2013, we test the effects of a substantial diagnosis-related group (DRG) tariff refinement that occurred in 2012, designed to reduce financial risks of French maternity wards. To estimate the resulting DRG incentives with regard to the choice between scheduled C-sections and other modes of child delivery, we predict, based on pre-admission patient characteristics, the probability of each possible child delivery outcome and calculate expected differences in associated tariffs. Using patient-level administrative data, we find that introducing additional severity levels and clinical factors into the reimbursement algorithm had no significant effect on the probability of a scheduled C-section being performed. The results are robust to multiple formulations of DRG financial incentives. Our paper is the first study that focuses on the consequences of a DRG refinement in obstetrics and develops a probabilistic approach suitable for measuring the expected effects of DRG fee incentives in the presence of multiple tariff groups.

We here show that individual-level economic insecurity, based on the time profle of economic resources, is detrimental to both physical and mental health in long-run Australian panel data. This relationship is found in panel data, comparing an individual’s change in economic security over time to the changes in her health. A heterogeneity analysis reveals that economic insecurity is par-ticularly detrimental to the health of the most-deprived, those over the age of 30, and men rather than women.

Background Tourette syndrome (TS) as well as its most common comorbidities are associated with a higher propensity for risky behaviour in everyday life. However, it is unclear whether this increased risk propensity in real-life contexts translates into a generally increased attitude towards risk. We aimed to assess decision-making under risk and ambiguity based on prospect theory by considering the effects of comorbidities and medication. Methods Fifty-four individuals with TS and 32 healthy controls performed risk and ambiguity decision-making tasks under both gains and losses conditions. Behavioural and computational parameters were evaluated using (i) univariate analysis to determine parameters difference taking independently; (ii) supervised multivariate analysis to evaluate whether our parameters could jointly account for between-group differences (iii) unsupervised multivariate analysis to explore the potential presence of sub-groups. Results Except for general ‘noisier’ (less consistent) decisions in TS, we showed no specific risk-taking behaviour in TS or any relation with tics severity or antipsychotic medication. However, the presence of comorbidities was associated with distortion of decision-making. Specifically, TS with obsessive–compulsive disorder comorbidity was associated with a higher risk-taking profile to increase gain and a higher risk-averse profile to decrease loss. TS with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder comorbidity was associated with risk-seeking in the ambiguity context to reduce a potential loss. Conclusions Impaired valuation of risk and ambiguity was not related to TS per se . Our findings are important for clinical practice: the involvement of individuals with TS in real-life risky situations may actually rather result from other factors such as psychiatric comorbidities.

We here investigate the role of risk aversion in COVID‐19 vaccine hesitancy. The theoretical effect is ambiguous, as both COVID‐19 infection and vaccination side‐effects involve probabilistic elements. In large‐scale data covering five European countries, we find that vaccine hesitancy falls with risk aversion, so that COVID‐19 infection is perceived as involving greater risk than is vaccination.

We use a nationally-representative dataset that includes a large sample of sexual-orientation minorities to investigate gender bias and sexual-orientation discrimination in career progression. Our results are consistent with persistent gender bias findings and non-heterosexual identity-based employment discrimination. Our findings are consistent with previous work noting that protective legislation for gay and lesbian sexual identities have increased the cost of discrimination and contribute to the improved socioeconomic status of a substantial number of people in these minority groups. However, these gains have not been shared with other minority groups in the LGB+ community, which still have some of the lowest probabilities of holding managerial jobs, and higher probabilities of appearing in lower socioeconomic classes.

The stakeholder (or responsible) firm is defined in this paper as one that maximizes the (weighted or unweighted) sum of the surpluses of its customers and suppliers (including workers). We show that, although this objective is hard to empirically measure, it can be pursued by simple management rules that rely on constrained profit maximization. We find that unconstrained profit maximization gives a competitive edge to ordinary firms, but that stakeholder firms are better for social welfare and internalize several important effects of their activities on society. We also show that long term entry decisions should rely on profit modied by Pigouvian pricing of externalities, incidentally providing a novel justication for the polluter-pays principle.

Debra Satz’s brilliant essay highlights that it is insufficient to study markets in terms of efficiency and potential market failures, as they have deep effects on people and societies. This line of thought could inspire the project of building a general theory of social interactions, in which the specific properties of market transactions would be identified, and their influence on society at large, depending on the surrounding institutions and social structure, could be understood. In this brief essay, personal care provides an example of the complex ramifications of different arrangements for social interactions.

Conditions de travail, qualité des emplois, choix managériaux et d’organisation, santé et sens du travail : un état de la situation française.

Introduction There is a lack of quantitative evidence on the role of food innovations—new food ingredients and processing techniques—in the nutrition transition. Objective Document the distribution of food innovations across 67 high-income (HIC) and middle-income (MIC) countries between 1970 and 2010, and its association with the nutritional composition of food supply. Methods We used all available data on food patents, as compiled by the European Patent Office, to measure food innovations. We considered innovations directly received by countries from inventors seeking protection in their territories, and those embedded in processed food imports. Food and Agricultural Organization data were used to estimate the associations between international diffusion of food innovations and trends in total food supply and its macronutrient composition, after adjusting for confounding trends in demand-side factors. We identified the role of trade by simulating the changes in average diet due to innovations embedded in food imports. Results Trends in food innovations were positively and significantly associated with changes in daily per capita calorie supply available for human consumption in MIC between 1990 and 2010 (elasticity of 0.027, 95% CI 0.019 to 0.036). Food innovations were positively correlated with the share of animal and free fats in total food supply (elasticities of 0.044, 95% CI 0.030 to 0.058 for MIC between 1970 and 1989 and 0.023, 95% CI 0.003 to 0.043 for HIC between 1990 and 2010). Food innovations were associated with substitutions from complex carbohydrates towards sugars in total food supply for MIC after 1990 (elasticities of −0.037, 95% CI −0.045 to −0.029 for complex carbs, 0.082, 95% CI 0.066 to 0.098 for sugars). For these countries, the trade channel capturing access to innovations through imports of processed food played a key role. Conclusion Policy-makers should consider the impacts of the international diffusion of food innovations in assessing the costs and benefits of international trade regulations.

L’ un des principaux héritages de la pandémie de covid-19 est certainement l’extension des interactions fondées sur les technologies numériques de l’information, en particulier le travail à distance. Dans la plupart des pays, la situation a imposé un recours massif au télétravail pour tous ceux qui le pouvaient. Ce choc a accéléré une évolution ancienne, mais lente et inégale, alimentée par la numérisation de l’économie, permettant à certains de travailler en dehors des locaux de l’entreprise, à domicile ou ailleurs. Le télétravail, au moins partiel, est entré dans les mœurs et pourrait concerner aujourd’hui près de la moitié des emplois dans les pays développés. Après deux cents ans de séparation, le retour au domicile de l’activité économique soulève d’importants défis juridiques. Il est aussi porteur d’interrogations quant aux effets sur le bien-être des travailleurs : liberté accrue ou désocialisation, facteur d’innovation et de coopération renforcée ? Quelles sont les limites à l’extension du travail à distance ? A-t-il touché différemment les hommes et les femmes ? Les travaux réunis dans cet ouvrage, issus de différentes disciplines des sciences humaines et sociales, apportent des éclairages inédits sur ces questions.

The paper studies a very simple game-theoretical model of sports competition such as the European football leagues. In this oligopoly-type context, the Cournot-Nash equilibrium reveals a paradoxical differentiation between clubs: those that include not only profit but also sporting performance in their objectives end up generating more profit than others who purely maximize profit.

We use nationally representative panel data from Australia to consider the impact of retirement on individual locus of control, a socio-emotional skill that has substantial explanatory power for a broad range of life outcomes. We establish causality via cohort-specific eligibility age for the Australian Age Pension. We show that retirement leads to increased internal locus of control. This greater sense of internal control can explain around one-third and one-fifth of the positive effects of retirement on health and subjective well-being, respectively. The impact of retirement on control beliefs varies along the distribution of locus of control, with the positive influence being most pronounced for men with a relatively high sense of internal control and for women with a relatively high sense of external control. Last, we provide evidence that locus of control is much more malleable at retirement than the other socio-emotional skills of the Big-Five personality traits, risk and time preferences, and trust.

Public Goods aim to improve individual welfare. We investigate the causal consequences of roads on well-being in 24 African countries, instrumenting paved roads by 19th Century hypothetical lines between major ports and cities. We have data on over 32000 individuals, and consider both their objective and subjective well-being, via access to four basic needs and the subjective evaluation of living conditions respectively. Our instrumental-variable analysis suggests that roads reduce material deprivation, by improving access to basic needs, but that there is no causal relation between the distance to a road and subjective living conditions. The benefit of roads in providing basic needs then seems to be offset by worse outcomes in other domains.

Job insecurity can have wide-ranging consequences outside of the labour market. A 1999 rise in the French layoff tax paid by large private firms when they laid off older workers made younger workers less secure; this insecurity reduced their fertility by 3.7 percentage points (with a 95% confidence interval between 0.7 and 6.6 percentage points). Reduced fertility is only found at the intensive margin: job insecurity reduces family size but not the probability of parenthood itself. Our results also suggest negative selection into parenthood, as this fertility effect does not appear for low-income and less-educated workers.

People reason not only in beliefs, but also in intentions, preferences, and other attitudes. They form preferences from existing preferences, or intentions from existing beliefs and intentions, and so on. This often involves choosing between rival conclusions. Building on Broome (2013) and Dietrich et al. (2019), we present a philosophical and formal analysis of reasoning in attitudes, with or without facing choices in reasoning. We give different accounts of choosing, in terms of a conscious activity or a partly subconscious process. Reasoning in attitudes differs fundamentally from reasoning about attitudes, a form of theoretical reasoning in which one discovers rather than forms attitudes. We show that reasoning in attitudes has standard formal properties (such as monotonicity), but is indeterministic, reflecting choice in reasoning. Like theoretical reasoning, it need not follow logical entailment, but for a more radical reason, namely indeterminism. This makes reasoning in attitudes harder to model logically than theoretical reasoning. But it can be studied abstractly, using indeterministic consequence operators.

This paper examines the empirical relationship between individuals’ cognitive and non-cognitive abilities and COVID-19 compliance behaviors using cross-country data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE). We find that both cognitive and non-cognitive skills predict responsible health behaviors during the COVID-19 crisis. Episodic memory is the most important cognitive skill, while conscientiousness and neuroticism are the most significant personality traits. There is also some evidence of a role for an internal locus of control in compliance.

The COVID-19 outbreak has generated significant uncertainty about the future, especially for young adults. Health and economic threats, as well as more diffuse concerns about the consequences of COVID-19, can trigger feelings of anxiety, leading individuals to adopt uncertainty-reducing behaviours. We tested whether anxiety was associated with an increase in willingness to be exposed to the risk of COVID-19 infection (WiRE) using an online survey administered to 3,110 French individuals aged between 18 and 35 years old during the first pandemic wave and lockdown period (April 2020). Overall, 56.5% of the sample declared a positive WiRE. A one standard deviation increase in psychological state anxiety raised the WiRE by +3.9 pp (95% CI [+1.6, 6.2]). Unemployment was associated with a higher WiRE (+8.2 percentage points (pp); 95% CI [+0.9, 15.4]). One standard deviation increases in perceived hospitalisation risk and in income (+1160€) were associated with a -4.1 pp (95% CI [-6.2, 2.1]) decrease in the WiRE and +2.7 pp increase (95% CI [+1.1, 4.4]), respectively. Overall, our results suggest that both psychological anxiety and the prospect of economic losses can undermine young adults’ adherence to physical distancing recommendations. Public policies targeting young adults must consider both their economic situation and their mental health, and they must use uncertainty-reducing communication strategies.

This contribution reviews the main normative and positive arguments that can used in the assessment of the costs and benefits of food marketing restrictions, focusing specifically on theoretical and empirical developments in the economics of advertising, consumer behaviour and industrial organization since the 70s.

Unprecedented economic growth has been experienced over the several decades worldwide, but such rapid economic growth wasn’t accompanied by equally-substantial improvement in health, especially health inequalities between the rich and poor. This study examines the role of housing in income-related health inequalities (income-health gradient) in urban China. We here analyze 1991–2015 China Health and Nutrition Survey data to ask how housing affects income-related health inequalities in urban China. We find pro-poor inequalities in self-reported bad health but pro-rich inequalities in objective bad health (general overweight/obesity, central obesity and high blood pressure). Housing conditions serve to reduce the health gradient, especially for objective health. On the contrary, homeownership exacerbates the health gradient. Improving housing conditions thus appears to be an effective way of reducing the income-health gradient in urban China.

In 2016, the World Health Organization officially recommended sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) taxation as a strategy to reduce purchases, stimulate product reformulation and generate revenues for health-related programmes. Four years before, France had been one of the first countries to tax SSBs. However, the design of this tax was not considered optimal: its rate was flat, low, identical for SSBs and artificially-sweetened drinks containing no added sugars, and its initial public health justification was set aside in favour of budgetary concerns. In 2018, a new taxation scheme was enacted. Integrated in the Social Security Finance Bill, the tax on SSBs is now linearly indexed to the quantity of added sugars in the drink. In this article, we summarize the lessons learnt from the 2012 soda tax and offer insights on the potential public health benefits of the new tax enacted in 2018. A multidimensional framework aimed at gathering evidence about SSB taxation for public health drove our rational so that we address: (1) the soda tax policy-change process; (2) its impact on price and purchases; (3) the consumer receptiveness to the tax and; (4) its legal framework. We also discuss the potential application of the tax to other foods/nutrients.

While the spread of digital technologies and the growth of associated atypical forms of work are attracting increasing attention, little is known about the impact of these new forms of work on psychological well-being. This paper examines the effect of Uber diffusion on the mental health of drivers, taking advantage of the rollout of Uber across UK regions. We match individual-level information on health and sociodemographic characteristics from the UK Household Longitudinal Study (Understanding Society) between 2009 and 2019 with data on the diffusion of Uber across the country. We first show that Uber diffusion is positively associated with mental health, as measured by the General Health Questionnaire, in the population group of self-employed drivers. We argue that this positive correlation captures a selection effect (of comparatively healthier individuals into the category of self-employed drivers after Uber entry) and the omission of unobserved factors, rather than a causal effect. Indeed, we do not observe any improvement in mental health for workers who were already self-employed drivers before Uber entry. In parallel with this, among individuals who remained salaried drivers over time, our results suggest there may be a decline in mental health after Uber’s introduction, probably because they feel the competition from Uber drivers.

De nombreuses études ont analysé l’impact du changement d’entraîneurs sur les performances des clubs, notamment dans les championnats européens. Nous utilisons ici les informations provenant de la Ligue 1 sur la période 1998-2018. Les clubs français qui changent d’entraîneur ont des caractéristiques différentes des équipes qui ne le font pas. Certaines peuvent être observées (comme les points avant le licenciement), d’autres restent inobservables. Notre méthode empirique prend en compte les différences observables entre les clubs par appariement exact et corrige des caractéristiques non observées par doubles différences. Nos résultats montrent que les effets d’un changement d’entraîneur sur la performance de l’équipe ne sont pas significatifs, et ce même si l’on tient compte de certaines caractéristiques des coachs.

When considering the social valuation of a life-year, there is a conflict between two basic intuitions: on the one hand, the intuition of universality, according to which the value of an additional life-year should be universal, and, as such, should be invariant to the context considered; on the other hand, the intuition of complementarity, according to which the value of a life-year should depend on what this extra-life-year allows for, and, hence, on the quality of that life-year, because the quantity of life and the quality of life are complement to each other. This paper proposes three distinct accounts of the intuition of universality, and shows that those accounts either conflict with a basic monotonicity property, or lead to indifference with respect to how life-years are distributed within the population. Those results support the abandon of the intuition of universality. But abandoning the intuition of universality does not prevent a social evaluator from giving priority, when allocating life-years, to individuals with the lowest quality of life.

We use data from the COME-HERE longitudinal survey collected by the University of Luxembourg to assess the effects of the policy responses to the COVID-19 pandemic on life satisfaction in France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Sweden over the course of 2020. Policy responses are measured by the Stringency Index and the Economic Support Index from the Blavatnik School of Government. Stringency is systematically associated with lower life satisfaction, controlling for the intensity of the pandemic itself. This stringency effect is larger for women, those with weak ties to the labor market, and in richer households. The effect of the Economic Support is never statistically different from zero.

This paper presents data from a survey leading up to the 2016 US presidential elections. Participants were asked their opinions about the candidates and were also asked to vote according to three alternative voting rules, in addition to plurality: approval voting, range voting, and instant runoff voting. The participants were split into two groups, one facing a set of four candidates (Clinton, Trump, Johnson, and Stein) and the other a set of nine candidates (the previous four plus Sanders, Cruz, McMullin, Bloomberg, and Castle). The paper studies three issues: (1) How do US voters use these alternative rules? (2) What kinds of candidates, in terms of individual preferences, are favored by which rule? (3) Which rules empirically satisfy the independence of eliminated alternatives? Our results provide evidence that, according to all standard criterion computed on individual preferences, be there utilitarian or of the Condorcet type, the same candidate (Sanders) wins, and that evaluative voting rules such as approval voting and range voting might lead to this outcome, contrary to direct plurality and instant runoff voting (that elects Clinton) and to the official voting rule (that elected Trump).

We develop a distribution-adjusted welfare measure that aggregates income, unemployment, and longevity using individual weights that reflect heterogeneous preferences. The measure is implemented for 28 OECD countries for 2008–2013 to gauge the welfare effects of the Great Recession. Estimated shadow prices of one percentage point of unemployment and one year of longevity average 3.1 percent and 5.7 percent of household income, respectively. We find that the rate of GDP growth poorly reflects the social cost of the Great Recession. On average, GDP per capita stagnated across OECD countries between 2008 and 2013 while living standards of poor households fell by 5.3 percent annually.

The health crisis has underscored the need for national accounts that can track the activity and financial situations of various groups of economic agents as quickly as possible. It also raises several questions about how real GDP aggregates quantities of heterogenous goods and services that meet very different needs whose relative priorities have been affected by the crisis, at least temporarily. We focus on two aspects of this question: the theoretical properties of aggregation by chaining at market prices for the market share of GDP and the joint problems of measurement and significance of the aggregate for its non-market components. Beyond the short-term shock, the crisis provides an opportunity to revisit some substantive issues regarding the interpretation of output and real growth indicators, issues that the post-crisis period should continue to fuel.

We highlight a new paradox for the social evaluation of risk that bears on the evaluation of individual well-being rather than social welfare, but has serious implications for social evaluation. The paradox consists in a tension between rationality, respect for individual preferences, and a principle of informational parsimony that excludes individual risk attitudes from the assessment of riskless situations. No evaluation criterion can satisfy these three principles. This impossibility result has implications for the evaluation of social welfare under risk, especially when the preferences of some individuals are not known. It generalizes existing impossibility results, while relying on very weak principles of social rationality and respect for individual preferences. We explore the possibilities opened by weakening each of our three principles and discuss the advantages and drawbacks of these different routes.

Le processus de recrutement (le « tirage au sort ») d’un mini-public conduit à sélectionner des volontaires motivé·es et disponibles pour participer à l’assemblée. Cependant, leurs dispositions pour la délibération ne se révèlent qu’en situation et dépendent largement du déroulement même du processus délibératif. L’analyse des réponses des volontaires participant à la Convention citoyenne pour le climat à des questionnaires portant sur la qualité délibérative des échanges, ainsi que leur comparaison avec celles données par les participant·es aux conférences citoyennes régionales du Grand débat national (France, 2019) et du G1000 (Belgique, 2011), permettent de saisir l’expression de dispositions relationnelles dans les interactions qui font d’une situation délibérative une expérience partagée. Nous employons l’expression « citoyennes délibératives et citoyens délibératifs » pour qualifier les interactions entre dispositions individuelles et dispositif délibératif, constitutives de l’expérience partagée. L’écoute et le respect entre participant·es, la sincérité des prises de parole et leur orientation vers le bien commun, et le goût pour l’expression du désaccord politique en face à face forment la confiance des citoyennes délibératives et des citoyens délibératifs dans leur capacité collective à produire des propositions efficaces et justes. Un programme comparatif international permettrait de documenter leur expérience en saisissant plus finement les dispositions individuelles favorables à la délibération, leur formation et leur dynamique, en interrogeant les comportements qui les manifestent selon les motifs de participation.

Le « joyau » de la couronne de la FIFA et son principal « actif » demeure la Coupe du monde. Créée en 1928, elle a lieu tous les quatre ans depuis le tournoi de 1930 organisé et remporté par l’Uruguay parmi treize prétendants. Le Qatar accueillera 32 équipes, mais plus de 200 formations appartenant aux six confédérations continentales ont participé aux phases éliminatoires. Après la Seconde Guerre mondiale, la Coupe du monde va connaitre une très forte croissance en termes de diffusion (à partir de 1966), de notoriété sportive, d’enjeu social et d’activité économique (surtout à partir des années 1970). La compétition est devenue un évènement global, bénéficiant d’une diffusion planétaire. La Coupe du monde est non seulement devenue la principale source de financement de la FIFA, mais un grand nombre de fédérations nationales et de gouvernements souhaitent organiser cet événement pour bénéficier d’éventuelles retombées en matière sociales et économiques.

Jury theorems are mathematical theorems about the ability of collectives to make correct decisions. Several jury theorems carry the optimistic message that, in suitable circumstances, “crowds are wise”: many individuals together (using, for instance, majority voting) tend to make good decisions, outperforming fewer or just one individual. Jury theorems form the technical core of epistemic arguments for democracy, and provide probabilistic tools for reasoning about the epistemic quality of collective decisions. The popularity of jury theorems spans across various disciplines such as economics, political science, philosophy, and computer science. This entry reviews and critically assesses a variety of jury theorems. It first discusses Condorcet’s initial jury theorem, and then progressively introduces jury theorems with more appropriate premises and conclusions. It explains the philosophical foundations, and relates jury theorems to diversity, deliberation, shared evidence, shared perspectives, and other phenomena. It finally connects jury theorems to their historical background and to democratic theory, social epistemology, and social choice theory.

Background Spread of resistant bacteria causes severe morbidity and mortality. Stringent control measures can be expensive and disrupt hospital organization. In the present study, we assessed the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of control strategies to prevent the spread of Carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales (CPE) in a general hospital ward (GW). Methods A dynamic, stochastic model simulated the transmission of CPE by the hands of healthcare workers (HCWs) and the environment in a hypothetical 25-bed GW. Input parameters were based on published data; we assumed the prevalence at admission of 0.1%. 12 strategies were compared to the baseline (no control) and combined different prevention and control interventions: targeted or universal screening at admission (TS or US), contact precautions (CP), isolation in a single room, dedicated nursing staff (DNS) for carriers and weekly screening of contact patients (WSC). Time horizon was one year. Outcomes were the number of CPE acquisitions, costs, and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICER). A hospital perspective was adopted to estimate costs, which included laboratory costs, single room, contact precautions, staff time, i.e. infection control nurse and/or dedicated nursing staff, and lost bed-days due to prolonged hospital stay of identified carriers. The model was calibrated on actual datasets. Sensitivity analyses were performed. Results The baseline scenario resulted in 0.93 CPE acquisitions/1000 admissions and costs 32,050 €/1000 admissions. All control strategies increased costs and improved the outcome. The efficiency frontier was represented by: (1) TS with DNS at a 17,407 €/avoided CPE case, (2) TS + DNS + WSC at a 30,700 €/avoided CPE case and (3) US + DNS + WSC at 181,472 €/avoided CPE case. Other strategies were dominated. Sensitivity analyses showed that TS + CP might be cost-effective if CPE carriers are identified upon admission or if the cases have a short hospital stay. However, CP were effective only when high level of compliance with hand hygiene was obtained. Conclusions Targeted screening at admission combined with DNS for identified CPE carriers with or without weekly screening were the most cost-effective options to limit the spread of CPE. These results support current recommendations from several high-income countries.

While little agreement exists regarding the taxation of bequests in general, there is a widely held view that accidental bequests should be subjected to a confiscatory tax. We reexamine the optimal taxation of accidental bequests by introducing a concern for compensating individuals for a premature death. Assuming that individuals care about what they leave to their offspring, we show that, whereas the 100 % tax view holds under the utilitarian criterion, the ex post egalitarian criterion (giving priority to the worst-off ex post) implies subsidizing accidental bequests so as to compensate the short-lived. In a second-best setting, compensating the short-lived justifies taxing total bequests at a rate increasing with the age of the deceased. Finally, when the model is extended to an intergenerational setting, accidental bequests cannot be used as a redistributive tool anymore, so that ex post egalitarianism rejoins the 100 % tax view.

This essay discusses the difficulty to reconcile two paradigms about beliefs: the binary or categorical paradigm of yes/no beliefs and the probabilistic paradigm of degrees of belief. The possibility for someone to hold beliefs of both types simultaneously is challenged by the lottery paradox, and more recently by a general impossibility theorem by Dietrich and List. The nature, relevance, and implications of the tension are explained and assessed.

Exploiting a representative sample of the French population by age, wealth, and asset classes, we document novel facts about their expectations and perceptions of stock market returns. Both expectations and perceptions of returns are very dispersed, significantly lower than their data counterparts, and a substantial portion of the variation in the former is explained by dispersion in the latter. Consistent with portfolio choice models under incomplete information, a conditional risk-return trade-off explains the intensive margin, while at the extensive margin, only expected returns matter. Despite accounting for survey measurement error in subjective return expectations, ’muted sensitivities’ at both portfolio choice margins obtain, getting consistently (i) bigger when excluding informed non-participants, and (ii) smaller, for inertial and professionally delegated portfolios.

To choose between options of different natures, standard decision models presume that a single representational system ultimately indexes their subjective value on a common scale, regardless of how they are constructed. To challenge this assumption, we systematically investigated hybrid decisions between experiential options, whose value is built from past outcomes experience, and symbolic options which describe probabilistic outcomes. We show that participants’ choices exhibited a pattern consistent with a systematic neglect of the experiential values. This normatively irrational decision strategy held after accounting for alternative explanations, and persisted when it bore an economics cost. Overall, our results demonstrate that experiential and symbolic values are not symmetrically considered in hybrid decisions, suggesting that they are not commensurable and recruit different representational systems which may be assigned different priority levels in the decision process. These findings challenge the dominant models commonly used in value-based decision-making research.

Pour une bonne allocation des ressources de la puissance publique, l’objectif de l’évaluation socioéconomique est d’apprécier, avec des critères transparents, l’utilité et l’intérêt collectif de projets d’investissement public ou de politiques publiques, y compris vis-à-vis de la protection de la santé des personnes dont l’enjeu est d’une importance particulière. Pourtant, la prise en compte des effets sur la santé dans les évaluations est souvent réduite à des tentatives isolées et exploratoires. Le manque d’outils ou de valeurs monétaires permettant d’évaluer et de valoriser les effets relatifs à la santé des personnes – on parlera d’« effets de santé » dans ce rapport pour couvrir à la fois les maladies et la qualité de vie, terme utilisé en économie de la santé1 – apparaît comme l’une des raisons de leur absence des évaluations socioéconomiques ex ante, ce qui revient finalement à considérer qu’ils sont nuls lors de la prise de décision. Dans ce contexte, mais également pour encourager le transfert des avancées méthodologiques du secteur de la santé (tel le recours à un indicateur synthétique de santé) vers d’autres secteurs et rendre explicite un coût de l’inaction, le Comité d’experts des méthodes d’évaluation socioéconomique, installé par France Stratégie et le Secrétariat général pour l’investissement, a lancé un groupe de travail sur l’évaluation socioéconomique des effets de santé des projets d’investissement public. Il a confié la présidence de ce groupe à Benoît Dervaux, économiste de la santé, maître de conférence-praticien hospitalier de santé publique à l’université de Lille et au Centre hospitalier universitaire de Lille (UMR 1167 RID-AGE), et Lise Rochaix, professeure agrégée des universités en sciences économiques à l’université de Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, affiliée à l’École d’économie de Paris et responsable scientifique de la chaire Hospinnomics, EEP et AP-HP. Ce groupe a cherché à établir une méthodologie d’estimation des coûts tangibles et intangibles des effets de santé qui puisse être appliquée à différents secteurs, dont quatre en particulier : dommages psychologiques des inondations, bénéfices de bénéfices de santé de l’activité physique dans l’espace public.

Public good games are at the core of many environmental challenges. In such social dilemmas, a large share of people endorse the norm of reciprocity. A growing literature complements this finding with the observation that many players exhibit a self-serving bias in reciprocation: « weak reciprocators » increase their contributions as a function of the effort level of the other players, but less than proportionally. In this paper, we build upon a growing literature on truth-telling to argue that weak reciprocity might be best conceived not as a preference, but rather as a symptom of an internal trade-off at the player level between (i) the truthful revelation of their private reciprocal preference, and (ii) the economic incentives they face (which foster free-riding). In truth-telling experiments, many players misrepresent private information when this is to their material benefit, but to a significantly lesser extent than what would be expected based on the profit-maximizing strategy. We apply this behavioral insight to strategic situations, and test whether the preference revelation properties of the classic voluntary contribution game can be improved by offering players the possibility to sign a classic truth-telling oath. Our results suggest that the honesty oath helps increase cooperation (by 33% in our experiment). Subjects under oath contribute in a way which is more consistent with (i) the contribution they expect from the other players and (ii) their normative views about the right contribution level. As a result, the distribution of social types elicited under oath differs from the one observed in the baseline: some free-riders, and many weak reciprocators, now behave as pure reciprocators.

This article explores subjective perceptions of retirement in France, using original quantitative data on the customers of a not-for-profit insurance company. The sample contains individuals aged 40–84, who are either in the labour force (N = 923) or retired (N = 705). Perceptions of retirement are measured using closed questions on views of the retirement transition (these views can be positive, negative or neutral) and definitions of retirement (retirement can be interpreted as a period of freedom, boredom, greater risk of precariousness, etc.). Using a number of different social indicators, we examine whether differences in social conditions translate into heterogeneous perceptions. We also investigate whether social differences in perceptions fade away with increasing age. Both working-age individuals and retirees generally have a positive view of the retirement transition and often define retirement as a period of freedom. Perceptions of retirement are shaped by social conditions: a higher level of education and income, greater wealth, better health and stronger social involvement go hand in hand with rosier perceptions. Moreover, we uncover a strengthening of this social gradient with increasing age. Finally, perceptions are positively correlated with satisfaction in various domains, for retirees.

Les inégalités sur le marché du travail entre les femmes et les hommes sont importantes : la participation des femmes reste plus faible que celle des hommes, leurs rémunérations sont inférieures en moyenne et elles connaissent des trajectoires professionnelles moins ascendantes que les hommes. La contribution des conditions d’accès à l’emploi à ces inégalités professionnelles reste encore mal connue. Les résultats issus d’études par correspondance (testings) en France suggèrent une discrimination à l’embauche à l’encontre des femmes limitée en moyenne mais qui varie selon les contextes étudiés. Le testing mené par l’Institut des politiques publiques et ISM Corum sous l’égide de la Dares permet de mesurer la discrimination à l’embauche selon le sexe dans des métiers qui varient selon leur niveau de qualification, de féminisation et de difficultés de recrutement. Cette vaste expérimentation a consisté à envoyer des CV fictifs en réponse à plusieurs milliers d’offres d’emploi dans onze métiers distincts en faisant varier les identités sur les candidatures. Ce rapport présente le protocole expérimental mis en œuvre ainsi que les principaux résultats de cette expérimentation.

This paper revisits two classical problems in the theory of voting—viz. the divided majority problem and the strategic revelation of information—in the light of evolutionarily founded partial Kantian morality. It is shown that, compared to electorates consisting of purely self-interested voters, such Kantian morality helps voters solve coordination problems and improves the information aggregation properties of equilibria, even for modest levels of morality.

This paper uses relatively large-scale internet survey data from Japan to analyse income comparisons and income satisfaction. In contrast to the vast majority of empirical work in the area of subjective well-being, we are able to measure both the direction (to whom?) and intensity (how much?) dimensions of income comparisons. Relative to Europeans, the Japanese compare more to friends and less to colleagues, and compare their incomes more. The relationship between satisfaction and reference-group income is negative and more negative for those who say that they compare their incomes more. Our main finding concerns the measure of the relevant reference-group income. It is common in non-experimental work to calculate “others’ income” as some conditional or unconditional cell-mean, with the cells being defined by neighbourhood, workplace or demographic type. We show that two such cell-mean measures (one from within the dataset, the other matched in from external sources) fit the well-being data worse than does a simple self-reported measure of what relevant others earn. The self-reported measure of others’ income would arguably make a useful addition to many existing surveys.

Qu’il soit authentique, produit de contrefaçon ou vintage, le maillot de football appartient désormais à la garde-robe de la globalisation. Un concepteur et fabricant, Benoît d’Argenlieu, deux économistes, Luc Arrondel et Richard Duhautois, et un dirigeant de club professionnel, Jérôme Champagne, sont réunis dans ce débat sur les valeurs du maillot. Il y est question, entre autres, des identités que ce produit textile endosse, de la manière dont il est dessiné, fabriqué et distribué, et des revenus qu’il génère.

La maîtrise est une ressource psychologique définie comme la mesure dans laquelle les individus perçoivent qu’ils ont le contrôle des circonstances importantes de leur vie. Bien que la maîtrise ait été associée à divers résultats en matière de santé physique et psychologique, les études évaluant sa relation avec le statut pondéral et le comportement alimentaire font défaut. L’objectif de cette étude transversale était d’évaluer la relation entre la maîtrise et le statut pondéral, la prise alimentaire, le grignotage et les symptômes de troubles alimentaires dans l’étude de cohorte NutriNet-Santé. La maîtrise a été mesurée à l’aide de l’échelle de maîtrise de Pearlin (PMS) chez 32 588 adultes (77,45 % de femmes), dont l’âge moyen était de 50,04 (14,53) ans. L’âge moyen était de 50,04 (14,53) ans. La taille et le poids ont été autodéclarés. La qualité globale du régime alimentaire et la consommation de groupes d’aliments ont été évaluées à l’aide de ≥3 relevés alimentaires autodéclarés sur 24 heures (fourchette : 3-27). Le grignotage a été évalué à l’aide d’une question ad hoc. Les symptômes de la dysfonction érectile ont été évalués à l’aide du questionnaire « Sick-Control-One-Fat-Food » (SCOFF). Des analyses de régression linéaire et logistique ont été effectuées pour évaluer la relation entre la maîtrise et le statut pondéral, la prise alimentaire, le grignotage et les symptômes de dysfonctionnement érectile, en tenant compte des caractéristiques sociodémographiques et du mode de vie. Les femmes ayant un niveau de maîtrise plus élevé étaient moins susceptibles d’être en sous-poids (OR : 0,88 ; 95%CI : 0,84, 0,93), en surpoids [OR : 0,94 (0,91, 0,97)], ou obèses [classe I : OR : 0,86 (0,82, 0,90) ; classe II : OR : 0,76 (0,71, 0,82) ; classe III : OR : 0,77 (0,69, 0,86)]. Les hommes ayant un niveau de maîtrise plus élevé étaient moins susceptibles d’être obèses [classe III : OR : 0,75 (0,57, 0,99)]. La maîtrise était associée à une meilleure qualité de l’alimentation en général, à une plus grande consommation de fruits et légumes, de produits de la mer, d’aliments complets, de légumineuses, de fruits oléagineux non salés et de boissons alcoolisées, et à une plus faible consommation de viande et de volaille, de produits laitiers, de produits sucrés et gras, de desserts à base de lait et de boissons sucrées. La maîtrise était également associée à une moindre fréquence de grignotage [OR : 0,89 (0,86, 0,91)] et à une diminution des symptômes de dysfonctionnement érectile [OR : 0,73 (0,71, 0,75)]. La maîtrise étant associée à un comportement alimentaire favorable et au statut pondéral, cibler la maîtrise pourrait être une approche prometteuse pour promouvoir des comportements sains. Numéro d’enregistrement de l’essai clinique NCT03335644 sur Clinicaltrials.gov .

Nous examinons les comportements d’épargne et de placement des ménages français sur longue période, à travers cinq vagues de l’enquête Patrimoine de l’Insee, qui couvrent deux décennies (1997-2018). Les enquêtes, conduites en 1997-1998, 2003-2004, 2009- 2010, 2014-2015 et 2017-2018, interrogent chacune entre 9 000 et 15 000 ménages de façon détaillée sur leur détention d’actifs financiers, immobiliers et professionnels, sur leur endettement et sur leurs revenus. Elles intègrent également des questions sur les caractéristiques sociodémographiques et le parcours professionnel des membres du ménage ; la dernière vague d’enquête (2017-2018) a ainsi été renommée « Histoire de vie et Patrimoine ». Lorsque cela était nécessaire, les variables sociodémographiques et patrimoniales ont été harmonisées au travers des cinq vagues d’enquête (voir annexe 1). Sur l’ensemble de la période couverte (1997-2018), la détention de produits d’épargne-retraite a été affectée par les réformes des régimes de retraite à partir de 1993, mais également, à partir de 2003, par de nombreux changements législatifs concernant l’épargne-retraite, les pouvoirs publics ayant accompagné la baisse future des droits à pension d’incitations à l’épargne individuelle (Mitchell et al., 2003). L’évolution des détentions d’épargne-retraite dépend également des rendements relatifs des produits et du rendement espéré de ces produits sur le cycle de vie (COR, 2021b ; Hamayon, Legros & Pradat, 2020). Enfin, l’évolution des revenus et la crise financière de 2007-2008 ont modifié les intentions des ménages concernant l’épargne.

Launched in 2019, the French Citizens’ Convention for Climate (CCC) tasked 150 randomly-chosen citizens with proposing fair and effective measures to fight climate change. This was to be fulfilled through an “innovative co-construction procedure,” involving some unspecified external input alongside that from the citizens. Did inputs from the steering bodies undermine the citizens’ accountability for the output? Did co-construction help the output resonate with the general public, as is expected from a citizens’ assembly? To answer these questions, we build on our unique experience in observing the CCC proceedings and documenting them with qualitative and quantitative data. We find that the steering bodies’ input, albeit significant, did not impair the citizens’ agency, creativity and freedom of choice. While succeeding in creating consensus among the citizens who were involved, this co-constructive approach however failed to generate significant support among the broader public. These results call for a strengthening of the commitment structure that determines how follow-up on the proposals from a citizens’ assembly should be conducted.

En France, les départs à la retraite sont fortement marqués par une « norme sociale » puisqu’une très large majorité des personnes liquident leurs droits au taux plein, que ce soit par la durée de cotisation ou par l’âge légal. Pour autant, le niveau de vie, les conditions de travail, la santé et les incitations financières sont susceptibles d’influencer ces départs. Nous étudions ici les liens entre âge de départ à la retraite et montant du patrimoine. Plus précisément, nous testons l’existence d’un éventuel effet richesse en évaluant les effets du patrimoine du ménage sur l’âge envisagé de départ à la retraite par les individus. Pour cela, nous mobilisons l’enquête de suivi « Histoire de vie et patrimoine » 2014-2015 de l’Insee. Deux conclusions principales sont tirées de l’analyse économétrique. La première concerne les ménages endettés (sur leur logement principal ou pour leur entreprise), qui envisagent de se retirer plus tard du marché du travail. La seconde montre que, quelle que soit la définition de la richesse (brute, nette, financière), on anticipe une retraite plus tardive si l’on est relativement pauvre ou si l’on est relativement riche : l’effet richesse sur l’âge envisagé de départ à la retraite n’est donc pas linéaire. Ces effets « retard » aux extrêmes sont évidemment de nature différente : sans doute pour des raisons de niveau de vie pour les plus pauvres ; vraisemblablement pour d’autres motifs pour les plus riches (intérêt au travail, altruisme intergénérationnel, etc.).

This study measures inequality and inequity in the distribution of clinical trials on cancer drug development between 1996 and 2016, comparing the number of clinical trials with cancer need, proxied by prevalence, incidence, or survival rates for both rare and non-rare cancers. We leverage a unique global database of clinical trials activity and costs between 1996 and 2016, constructed for 227 different cancer types to measure for rare and non-rare cancers: i) inequalities and inequity of clinical trial activity, considering all trials as well as split by R&D stage; ii) inequalities and inequity in R&D investment proxied by trial enrollment and duration; iii) evolution of inequity over time. Inequalities are measured with concentration curves and indices and inequities measured with the health inequity index. We find four important results. First, we show pro-low need inequity across cancer types for both rare and non-rare cancers, for all need proxies. Second, we show inequity differs across R&D stages and between rare and non-rare cancers. The distribution of clinical trials for non-rare cancers disproportionately favors low-need non-rare cancers from earlier to later stages of R&D, whilst for rare cancers this only occurs in Phase 2 trials. Third, inequity analyses in R&D investment show that only trial enrollment for rare cancers and trial duration for non-rare cancers are disproportionately concentrated among low-need cancers. Finally, while pro-low need inequity has persisted between 1996 and 2016 for non-rare cancers, it has faded for rare cancers post-EU orphan drugs’ legislation.

Humans do not integrate new information objectively: outcomes carrying a positive affective value and evidence confirming one’s own prior belief are overweighed. Until recently, theoretical and empirical accounts of the positivity and confirmation biases assumed them to be specific to ‘high-level’ belief updates. We present evidence against this account. Learning rates in reinforcement learning (RL) tasks, estimated across different contexts and species, generally present the same characteristic asymmetry, suggesting that belief and value updating processes share key computational principles and distortions. This bias generates over-optimistic expectations about the probability of making the right choices and, consequently, generates over-optimistic reward expectations. We discuss the normative and neurobiological roots of these RL biases and their position within the greater picture of behavioral decision-making theories.

Migration is a widely used adaptation strategy to climate change impacts. Yet resource constraints caused by such impacts may limit the ability to migrate, thereby leading to immobility. Here we provide a quantitative, global analysis of reduced international mobility due to resource deprivation caused by climate change. We incorporate both migration dynamics and within-region income distributions in an integrated assessment model. We show that climate change induces decreases in emigration of lowest-income levels by over 10% in 2100 for medium development and climate scenarios compared with no climate change and by up to 35% for more pessimistic scenarios including catastrophic damages. This effect would leave resource-constrained populations extremely vulnerable to both subsequent climate change impacts and increased poverty.

Comment les Français conçoivent-ils la répartition des revenus dans la société et leur propre place dans la hiérarchie sociale ? Et quelle est la prévalence des opinions dites « populistes » ? La dernière vague de l’enquête ISSP (2019) montre que ces différentes perceptions sont généralement cohérentes entre elles, à deux exceptions près : (1) la plupart des Français interrogés pensent appartenir à la classe moyenne, mais se font une idée très inégalitaire de la société française à l’image d’une pyramide, c’est-à-dire une grande proportion de pauvres et des effectifs de plus en plus faibles à mesure que l’on s’élève dans l’échelle des positions. (2) Ces différentes opinions des Français semblent dissociées de leur propre niveau de revenu.

We study the impact of work from home on subjective wellbeing during the Covid period, where self-selection of individuals into telework is ruled out, at least part of the time, by stay-at-home orders. We use a difference-in-difference approach with two-way fixed-effects and identify the specific impact of switching to telecommuting, separately from any other confounding factor. In particular, our identification strategy avoids the influence of inter-personal heterogeneity by exploiting the multiple entries into telework, by the same individuals, at different times. On average over the period, switching to work from home -especially full-time, worsens mental health. We also distinguish a positive but imprecisely measured impact of part-time telework on life satisfaction. However, this hides a dynamic evolution, whereby the initial deterioration gives place to an adaptation process after a couple of months. We also uncover a particularly pronounced fall in subjective wellbeing of women with children’s subjective, especially in the first months; this could be associated with home-schooling.

Aims Compulsivity is a common phenotype among psychiatric disorders, such as obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) and gambling disorder (GD). Deficiencies in metacognition, such as the inability to estimate one’s performance via confidence judgments could contribute to pathological decision‐making. Earlier research has shown that patients with OCD exhibit underconfidence, while patients with GD exhibit overconfidence. Moreover, it is known that motivational states (e.g. monetary incentives) influence metacognition, with gain (respectively loss) prospects increasing (respectively decreasing) confidence. Here, we reasoned that OCD and GD symptoms might correspond to an exacerbation of this interaction between metacognition and motivation. Methods We hypothesized GD’s overconfidence to be exaggerated during gain prospects, while OCD’s underconfidence to be worsened in loss context, which we expected to see represented in ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC) blood‐oxygen‐level‐dependent activity. We tested those hypotheses in a task‐based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) design (27 patients with GD, 28 patients with OCD, 55 controls). The trial is registered in the Dutch Trial Register (NL6171). Results We showed increased confidence for patients with GD versus patients with OCD, which could partly be explained by sex and IQ. Although our primary analyses did not support the hypothesized interaction between incentives and groups, exploratory analyses did show increased confidence in patients with GD specifically in gain context. fMRI analyses confirmed a central role for VMPFC in the processing of confidence and incentives, but no differences between the groups. Conclusion Patients with OCD and those with GD reside at opposite ends of the confidence spectrum, while no interaction with incentives was found, nor group differences in neuronal processing of confidence.

Economic insecurity has attracted growing attention, but there is no consensus as to its definition. We characterize a class of individual economic-insecurity measures based on the time profile of economic resources. We apply this economic-insecurity measure to political-preference data in the USA, UK, and Germany. Conditional on current economic resources, economic insecurity is associated with both greater political participation (support for a party or the intention to vote) and more support for conservative parties. In particular, economic insecurity predicts greater support for both Donald Trump before the 2016 US Presidential election and the UK leaving the European Union in the 2016 Brexit referendum.

Si la pandémie à la Covid-19 a eu des conséquences importantes sur l’économie du football, la riche actualité (économique) de ce sport va bien au-delà de la crise sanitaire. Au niveau européen, l’annonce de la création (avortée) de la Super League en avril 2021 a provoqué un petit séisme et suscité l’ire des supporters. L’atonie du marché des transferts sur les deux dernières saisons a mis en difficulté les clubs dont le modèle économique repose sur le trading joueurs. Les problèmes financiers de certains gros clubs européens ont incité l’UEFA à revoir le fair-play financier avec l’introduction d’un « salary cap ». L’arrivée du fonds souverain saoudien à Newcastle en octobre 2021 a bousculé les clubs de Premier League et l’entrée des fonds d’investissements dans le football, non seulement dans les clubs, mais aussi au niveau des ligues, interroge. Du côté français, la période a été marquée par la défection du diffuseur Mediapro, mais le football a pu se réjouir du transfert de Lionel Messi au PSG à l’été 2021. L’hypothèse soutenue dans ce livre est que le football entre dans une nouvelle ère : l’hypermodernité. On en donne les arguments et les outils. En particulier, les thèmes des inégalités et de la croissance, comme d’ailleurs dans la société, sont centraux pour envisager l’avenir du football, notamment l’émergence de la Super League européenne.

Les Français se représentent leur société comme très inégalitaire mais, comme la plupart des Européens, s’y voient occuper une place de niveau intermédiaire – même si, aux côtés des Russes, des Italiens et des Japonais, ils sont plus nombreux que les autres à se voir sur les niveaux inférieurs de l’échelle sociale. Mais au-delà de cette position statique, comment perçoivent-ils leur mobilité sociale ? La France fait partie des pays dont les habitants sont les plus nombreux en moyenne à penser avoir progressé par rapport à la position sociale de leurs parents – comme l’Allemagne, la Finlande et Israël par exemple, et à l’opposé de la Russie et du Japon. Pour ce concerne l’évolution future de leur position relative dans la société, la majorité des Français anticipe une certaine stabilité. Ces perceptions dépendent aussi du revenu des individus : jusqu’aux deux quintiles les plus riches, tous anticipent une mobilité intra et inter-générationnelle ascendante. Ceux qui voient la société comme un sapin ou une toupie (peu de pauvres) sont beaucoup plus optimistes quant à leur propre trajectoire. Ceux qui l’imaginent comme une pyramide (inégalitaire) perçoivent une mobilité intergénérationnelle- mais pas intragénérationnelle- ascendante. Enfin, en ce qui concerne le lien avec le positionnement politique, c’est à droite que la mobilité ascendante est perçue comme la plus forte. Au total, les Français se montrent assez optimistes quant à leur trajectoire de mobilité sociale, surtout par rapport à leurs parents, et l’image générale que forme leurs perceptions est celle d’une croyance largement partagée en un mécanisme de convergence vers la moyenne.

Objective: To better understand the different pathways linking socioeconomic position and HIV testing uptake in 18 sub-Saharan African countries. Design: We used cross-sectional population-based surveys between 2010 and 2018. Methods: Using a potential outcomes framework and the product method, we decomposed the total effect linking wealth and recent (<12 months) HIV testing into direct effects, and indirect effects, via internal (related to individual’s ability to perceive need for and to seek care) or external (ability to reach, pay for and engage in healthcare) mediators to calculate the proportion mediated (PM) by each mediator. Results: High levels of inequalities were observed in nine and 15 countries among women and men, respectively. The mediator indirect effect varied greatly across countries. The PM tended to be higher for internal than for external mediators. For instance, among women, HIV-related knowledge was estimated to mediate up to 12.1% of inequalities in Côte d’Ivoire; and up to 31.5% for positive attitudes towards people with HIV (PWH) in Senegal. For the four external mediators, the PM was systematically below 7%. Similar findings were found when repeating analyses on men for the internal mediators, with higher PM by attitudes towards PWH (up to 39.9% in Senegal). Conclusions: Our findings suggest that wealth-related inequalities in HIV testing may be mediated by internal more than external characteristics, with important variability across countries. Overall, the important heterogeneities in the pathways of wealth-related inequalities in HIV testing illustrate that addressing inequalities requires tailored efforts and upstream interventions.

Using nationally representative panel data on 7,766 individuals (22,878 observations), we investigate the association between several well-being indicators (depression, anxiety, stress, and loneliness) and the general tendency to follow official recommendations regarding selfprotection against COVID-19, in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and Sweden over the course of four data collection waves. Employing a flexible specification that allows the correlation to be non-monotonic, we find a U-shaped relationship, in which transitions to low and high levels of psychological well-being are associated with higher overall compliance, while transitions to medium levels of psychological well-being are associated with less compliance. Moreover, anxiety, stress, and loneliness levels at baseline also have a U-shaped effect on following the recommendations later (i.e., recommendations are followed best by those with lowest and highest levels of anxiety, stress, and loneliness at baseline, while following the recommendations is lowest for those with moderate levels of these variables). These U shapes are in contrast to previous studies which report monotonic relationships between various measures of mental health and compliance, or ambiguous results. Additionally, we observe a U-shaped correlation between the well-being indicators and a number of specific behaviours (including washing hands and mask wearing). Importantly, most of these specific behaviours play a role in the general tendency to follow recommendations. Finally, we uncover the role of gender composition effects in some of our results. While variations in depression and stress are negatively correlated with variations in overall compliance for males, the association is positive for females. The relation in the full sample (composed of males and females) will reflect first the negative slope for males and then the positive slope for females, explaining the U shape

Using the American and the French time-use surveys, we examine whether people have a preference for a more diversified mix of activities, in the sense that, everything else equal, they experience a higher level of well-being when their agenda is multi-activity, rather than concentrated on a very small number of activities. This could be due to decreasing marginal utility, as is assumed for the consumption of goods, if each episode of time is conceived as yielding a certain level of utility per se. However, in the presence of returns to specialization, people would face a trade-off between the efficiency of specialization and the taste for diversity, as concerns time arrangements. We test these hypotheses and investigate potential gender differences with regard to these patterns.

Household finances are confidential and discussions are limited to a subset of peers. We collect novel representative survey data to examine separately whether interactions with inner and outer social circles influence return perceptions, expectations, and exposure to a widely known financial instrument in a developed economy with multiple information sources. We find that a respondent’s connectedness, proxied by perceived prevalence of information or participation in the small financial circle, improves expectation accuracy indirectly, through boosting accuracy of perceived past returns; and influences stock participation and exposure not only by influencing expectations, but also directly.

Cette recherche a bénéficié du soutien de l’axe « Économie publique et redistribution » du Cepremap. L’Institut Europlace de Finance (EIF) a également soutenu financièrement ce travail. Nous remercions également Ronan Mahieu pour ses nombreuses relectures et ses commentaires avisés. Enfin, nous remercions les deux rapporteurs anonymes de la revue qui ont permis d’améliorer sensiblement la première version de ce texte. Les propos contenus dans ce papier sont ceux des auteurs et n’expriment pas nécessairement les positions de la Caisse des Dépôts.

Can people remember their past happiness? We analyzed data from four longitudinal surveys from the United States, France, the United Kingdom, and Germany spanning from the 1970s until the present, in which more than 60,000 adults were asked questions about their current and past life satisfaction. We uncovered systematic biases in recalled happiness: On average, people tended to overstate the improvement in their well-being over time and to understate their past happiness. But this aggregate figure hides a deep asymmetry: Whereas happy people recall the evolution of their life to be better than it was, unhappy ones tend to exaggerate their life’s negative evolution. It thus seems that feeling happy today implies feeling better than yesterday. This recall structure has implications for motivated memory and learning and could explain why happy people are more optimistic, perceive risks to be lower, and are more open to new experiences.

We carry out a difference-indifferences analysis of a representative real-time survey conducted as part of the German SocioEconomic Panel (SOEP) study and show that teleworking had a negative average effect on life satisfaction over the first two years of the COVID-19 pandemic. This average effect hides considerable heterogeneity reflecting genderrole asymmetry: lower life satisfaction is only found for unmarried men and women with school-age children. The negative effect for women with school-age children disappears in 2021, suggesting adaptation to new constraints and/or the adoption of coping strategies.

To cite: Hassine A, Antoni G, Fender M, et al. Combined incentive actions, focusing on primary care professionals, to improve cervical cancer screening in women living in socioeconomically disadvantaged geographical areas: a study protocol of a hybrid cluster randomised effectiveness and implementation trial-RESISTE. BMJ Open 2022;12:e065952. Introduction Cervical cancer (CC) causes thousands of deaths each year. Nearly 100% of cases are caused by oncogenic strains of human papillomavirus (HPV). In most industrialised countries, CC screening (CCS) is based on the detection of HPV infections. For many reasons including lower adherence to CCS, underserved women are more likely to develop CC, and die from it. We aim to demonstrate that the use of incentives could improve screening rates among this population. Methods and analysis Our cluster randomised, controlled trial will include 10 000 women aged 30–65 years eligible for CCS, living in deprived areas in four French departments, two mainlands and two overseas, and who did not perform physician-based HPV testing within the framework of the nationally organised screening programme. HPV self-sampling kit (HPVss) will be mailed to them. Two interventions are combined in a factorial analysis design ending in four arms: the possibility to receive or not a financial incentive of €20 and to send back the self-sampling by mail or to give it to a health professional, family doctor, gynaecologist, midwife or pharmacist. The main outcome is the proportion of women returning the HPVss, or doing a physician-based HPV or pap-smear test the year after receiving the HPVss. 12-month follow-up data will be collected through the French National Health Insurance database. We expect to increase the return rate of HPV self-samples by at least 10% (from 20% to 30%) compared with the postal return without economic incentive. Ethics and dissemination Ethics approval was first obtained on 2 April 2020, then on July 29 2022. The ethics committee classified the study as interventional with low risk, thus no formal consent is required for inclusion. The use of health insurance data was approved by the Commission Nationale Informatique et Libertés on 14 September 2021 (ref No 920276). An independent data security and monitoring committee was established. The main trial results will be submitted for publication in a peer-reviewed journal. Trial registration number NCT04312178 .

Introduction End-stage renal disease (ESRD) affects 84 000 persons in France and costs an estimated €4.2 billion. Education about their disease empowers patients and allows improved management of their disease and better health outcomes. This study aims to explore whether the addition of an interactive web-based platform to patient education is effective and cost-effective and additionally whether complementing the platform with social functions and features improves its performance. Methods and analysis Patients with severe, ESRD or post-transplant will be randomised 1:1:1 to either standard therapeutic education; or education using a specific application; or the enhanced interactive app with social features. The total follow-up duration is 18 months. Primary endpoint is the cost utility of using app-based therapeutic intervention; secondary endpoints are: compliance with treatment guidelines, app use (professionals and patients), patients’ satisfaction, budget impact analysis. Ethics and dissemination The findings will inform the deployment and reimbursement of the application. The study has ethical approval by the Ile de France ethics committee. Dissemination of the results will be presented at conferences and in peer-reviewed publications.

A growing body of evidence suggests that, during decision-making, BOLD signal in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC) correlates both with motivational variables – such as incentives and expected values – and metacognitive variables – such as confidence judgments – which reflect the subjective probability of being correct. At the behavioral level, we recently demonstrated that the value of monetary stakes bias confidence judgments, with gain (respectively loss) prospects increasing (respectively decreasing) confidence judgments, even for similar levels of difficulty and performance. If and how this value-confidence interaction is reflected in the VMPFC remains unknown. Here, we used an incentivized perceptual decision-making fMRI task that dissociates key decision-making variables, thereby allowing to test several hypotheses about the role of the VMPFC in the value-confidence interaction. While our initial analyses seemingly indicate that the VMPFC combines incentives and confidence to form an expected value signal, we falsified this conclusion with a meticulous dissection of qualitative activation patterns. Rather, our results show that strong VMPFC confidence signals observed in trials with gain prospects are disrupted in trials with no – or negative (loss) – monetary prospects. Deciphering how decision variables are represented and interact at finer scales seems necessary to better understand biased (meta)cognition.

We conduct a series of experiments in which two subjects bargain over five options. Following an experimental design closely related to De Clippel et al. (Am Econ Rev 104:3434-3458, 2014), we evaluate the performance of three bargaining mechanisms: (alpha) one subject shortlists a block of three options before the other chooses one among them, (ss) both subjects veto options simultaneously and in a block, and (gamma) both subjects veto options simultaneously and gradually one after the other. We document that the non-symmetric shortlisting mechanism (alpha) is highly efficient, but our data also suggest the existence of a first-mover advantage as subjects become more experienced. The simultaneous mechanism (ss) is less efficient than (alpha) and generates a high level of ex-post inequality. The gradual veto mechanism (gamma) is no less efficient than (alpha), but has the important advantage of shutting down the possibility of any first-mover advantage.

Rationale The coronavirus pandemic has forced governments to implement a variety of different dynamic lockdown-stringency strategies in the last two years. Extensive lockdown periods could have potential unintended consequences on mental health, at least for at-risk groups. Objective We present novel evidence on the heterogeneous direct and indirect effects of lockdown-stringency measures on individuals’ perception of social isolation (i.e. loneliness) using panel data from five European countries (Germany, France, Spain, Italy and Sweden), which tracks changes in both in-person and remote social interactions between May 2020 and March 2021. Method We combine data from the COME-HERE panel survey (University of Luxembourg) and the Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker (OxCGRT). We implement a dynamic mixture model in order to estimate the loneliness sub-population classes based on the severity of loneliness, as well as the evolution of social interactions. Results While loneliness is remarkably persistent over time, we find substantial heterogeneity across individuals, identifying four latent groups by loneliness severity. Group membership probability varies with age, gender, education and cohabitation status. Moreover, we note significant differences in the impact of social interactions on loneliness by degree of severity. Older people are less likely to feel lonely, but were more affected by lockdown measures, partly due to a reduction in face-to-face interactions. On the contrary, the younger, especially those living alone, report high levels of loneliness that are largely unaffected by changes in the pandemic after lockdown measures were initially implemented. Conclusions Understanding the heterogeneity in loneliness is key for the identification of at-risk populations that can be severely affected by extended lockdown measures. As part of public-health crisis-response systems, it is critical to develop support measures for older individuals living alone, as well as promoting continuous remote communication for individuals more likely to experience high levels of loneliness.

We use British panel data to explore the link between occupational status and life satisfaction. We find puzzling evidence for men of a U-shaped relationship in cross-section data: employees in medium-status occupations report lower life satisfaction scores than those of employees in either low- or high-status occupations. This puzzle disappears in panel data: the satisfaction of any man rises as he moves up the status ladder. The culprit seems to be immobility: the miserable middle is caused by men who have always been in medium-status occupations. There is overall little evidence of a link between occupational status and life satisfaction for women, although this relationship for higher-educated women does look more like that for men.

Understanding what lies behind actual COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy is fundamental to help policy makers increase vaccination rates and reach herd immunity. We use June 2021 data from the COME-HERE survey to explore the predictors of actual vaccine hesitancy in France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Spain and Sweden. We estimate a linear-probability model with a rich set of covariates and address issues of common-method variance. 13% of our sample say they do not plan to be vaccinated. Post-Secondary education, home-ownership, having an underlying health condition, and one standard-deviation higher age or income are all associated with lower vaccine hesitancy of 2–4.5% points. Conservative-leaning political attitudes and a one standard-deviation lower degree of confidence in the government increase this probability by 3 and 6% points respectively. Vaccine hesitancy in Spain and Sweden is significantly lower than in the other countries.

We analyse a measure of loneliness from a representative sample of German individuals interviewed in both 2017 and at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Both men and women felt lonelier during the COVID-19 pandemic than they did in 2017. The pandemic more than doubled the gender loneliness gap: women were lonelier than men in 2017, and the 2017-2020 rise in loneliness was far larger for women. This rise is mirrored in life-satisfaction scores. Men’s life satisfaction changed only little between 2017 and 2020; yet that of women fell dramatically, and sufficiently so to produce a female penalty in life satisfaction. We estimate that almost all of this female penalty is explained by the disproportionate rise in loneliness for women during the COVID-19 pandemic.

We conduct surveys on both participants in the French Citizens Convention for Climate (CCC) and the general public. By comparing the answers of the randomly drawn citizens with those of the general population on identical questions, we assess the representativity of the CCC, study the evolution of the citizens’ opinions, and document the perceptions of the CCC. The CCC appeared broadly representative of the French population. Although, the CCC’s Citizens seemed to have been somewhat more favorable to climate policies than the general population at the start, a majority support was found for all proposed measures but one. Despite our findings that the CCC correctly represented the population, we document widespread ignorance and mistrust towards the CCC, including a largely shared belief that it was not representative.

This paper provides one of the first testsof adaptation tothe complete set ofresidential transitions. We use long-run SOEP panel data and consider the impact of all housing transitions, whether or not they involvea change in housing tenureor geographical movement, on both life satisfaction and housing satisfaction. Controlling for individual characteristics and housing quality, some residential transitionsaffect life satisfactiononly little, while all transitions have a significant effect on housing satisfaction. This latter is particularly large for renters who become homeowners and move geographically,and for renters who move without changing tenure status. Regarding housing satisfaction, we find very little evidence of adaptation even after five years. Losing homeowner status is the only transition that produces lower housing satisfaction, and here the effect seems to become even more negative over time.

The social cost of carbon is a central metric for optimal carbon prices. Previous literature shows that inequality significantly influences the social cost of carbon, but mostly omits het-erogeneity below the national level. We present an optimal taxation model of the social cost of carbon that accounts for inequality between and within countries. We find that climate and distributional policy can generally not be separated. If only one country does not compen-sate low-income households for disproportionate damages, the social cost of carbon tends to increase globally. Optimal carbon prices remain roughly unchanged if national redistribu-tion leaves inequality between households unaffected by climate change and if the utility of households is approximately logarithmic in consumption.

Utilitarianism plays a central role in economics, but there is a gap between theory, where it is dominant, and applications, where monetary criteria are often used. For applications, a key di culty for utilitarianism remains to de ne how utilities should be measured and compared across individuals. Drawing on Harsanyi’s approach (Harsanyi, 1955) involving choices in risky situations, we introduce a new normalization of utilities that is the only one ensuring that: 1) a transfer from a rich to a poor is welfare enhancing, and 2) populations with more risk averse people have lower welfare. We embed these requirements in a new characterization of utilitarianism and study some implications of this “fair utilitarianism” for risk sharing, collective risk aversion and the design of health policy.

We explore the effects of adapted physical exercise programs in nursing homes, in which some residents suffer from dementia and/or physical limitations and other do not. We use data from 452 participants followed over 12 months in 32 retirement homes in four European countries. Using a difference-in-difference with individual random effects model, we show that the program has exerted a significant impact on the number of falls and the self-declared health and health-related quality of life of residents (EQ-5D). The wide scope of this study, in terms of sites, countries, and measured outcomes, brings generality to previously existing evidence. A simple computation, in the case of France, suggests that such programs are highly cost-efficient.

We here use panel data from the COME-HERE survey to track income inequality during COVID-19 in France, Germany, Italy, and Spain. Relative inequality in equivalent household disposable income among individuals changed in a hump-shaped way between January 2020 and January 2021, with an initial rise from January to May 2020 being more than reversed by September 2020. Absolute inequality also fell over this period. Due to the pandemic some households lost more than others, and government compensation schemes were targeted towards the poorest, implying that on average income differences decreased. Generalized Lorenz domination reveals that these distributive changes reduced welfare in Italy.

We develop a model of population dynamics accounting for the impact of climate change on mortality through ve channels (heat, diarrhoeal disease, malaria, dengue, undernutrition). An age-dependent mortality, which depends on global temperature increase, is introduced and calibrated. We consider three climate scenarios (RCP 6.0, RCP 4.5 and RCP 2.6) and find that the five risks induce deaths in the range from 135,000 per annum (in the near term) to 280,000 per annum (at the end of the century) in the RCP 6.0 scenario. We examine the number of life-years lost due to the five selected risks and find figures ranging from 4 to 9 million annually. These numbers are too low to impact the aggregate dynamics but they have interesting evolution patterns. The number of life-years lost is constant (RCP 6.0) or decreases over time (RCP 4.5 and RCP 2.6). For the RCP 4.5 and RCP 2.6 scenarios, we find that the number of life-years lost is higher today than in 2100, due to improvements in generic mortality conditions, the bias of those improvements towards the young, and an ageing population. From that perspective, the present generation is found to bear the brunt of the considered climate change impacts.

To any normal form game, we associate the symmetric two-stage game in which, in a first stage, the roles to be played in the base game are randomly assigned. We show that any equilibrium of the κ-universalization of this extended game is an equilibrium of the base game played by altruistic players (« ex ante Homo Moralis is altruistic »), and that the converse is false. The paper presents the implications of this remark for the philosophical nature of ethical behavior (Kantianism behind the veil of ignorance implies but is stronger than altruism) and for its evolutionary foundations.

We consider the effects of major prenatal economic shocks experienced by mothers on two indicatorsof newborn-infant health, birth weight and head circumference, using detailed microdata from the UKALSPAC survey. Controlling for physiological and socioeconomic factors, an economic shock in the first18 weeks of gestation lowers birth weight by 40-70 grams and head circumference by 2-3mm. We findevidence of transmission via poorer maternal health due to absolute material deprivation and tobaccoand alcohol consumption, but not for the endocrinological effects of increased psychosocial anxiety. Thefragile-male hypothesis holds for birth weight but not for head circumference, as predicted by recenttheories on gender differences in prenatal development.

We here use panel data from the COME-HERE survey to track income inequality during COVID-19 in France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Sweden. Relative inequality in equivalent household disposable income among individuals changed in a hump-shaped way over 2020. An initial rise from January to May was more than reversed by September. Absolute inequality also fell over this period. As such, policy responses may have been of more benefit for the poorer than for the richer.

We live in a time of pressing planetary challenges, many of which threaten catastrophic change to the natural environment and require massive and novel coordinated scientific and societal efforts on an unprecedented scale. Universities and other academic institutions have the opportunity and responsibility to assume a leading role in an era when the destiny of the planet is precisely in the hands of human beings. Drawing on the Planetary Health project promoted by the Rockefeller Foundation and The Lancet, Pompeu Fabra University launched in 2018 the Planetary Wellbeing Initiative, a long-term institutional strategy also animated by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Planetary Wellbeing might be defined as the highest attainable standard of wellbeing for human and non-human beings and their social and natural systems. Developing the potential of these new concepts involves a substantial theoretical and empirical effort in many different fields, all of them interrelated by the crosscutting challenges of global complexity, interdisciplinarity, and urgency. Close collaboration of science, humanities, and culture is more desperately needed now than ever before in the history of humankind.

The Repugnant Conclusion is an implication of some approaches to population ethics. It states, in Derek Parfit’s original formulation, For any possible population of at least ten billion people, all with a very high quality of life, there must be some much larger imaginable population whose existence, if other things are equal, would be better, even though its members have lives that are barely worth living. (Parfit 1984: 388)

Under prospective payment schemes, hospitals may be disincentivised to use high-priced drugs. In this context, supplementary payment schemes have been implemented to fund hospitals beyond hospital tariffs for the use of such technologies. In France, since 2004, an add-on list scheme ensures that listed high-priced drugs are reimbursed by the state, thereby imposing no cost on hospitals while drugs are on the list. Yet little is known about the impact of drug delisting, i.e., when drugs are removed from the add-on list, on hospital utilisation. In this paper, we investigate the effects of delisting for 12 cancer drugs on the volumes prescribed, the generic shares and the purchase prices negotiated by hospitals. Using French hospital-level data over the period 2008-2016, we construct volumes, generic shares and purchase prices at the molecule level to account for potential substitutions across therapeutically equivalent drugs. Hospital fixed effects allow for time-invariant unobserved hospital heterogeneity linked to e.g., prescription preferences or hospitals’ bargaining power. Our results indicate that prescription volumes, generic shares and price levels are not systematically affected by delisting, nor do we find evidence of response heterogeneity by hospital type. Overall, our findings mitigate concerns that the financial incentives associated with add-on lists may lead to hospitals over-prescribing high-priced drugs.

This study explores whether an oath to honesty can reduce both shirking and lying among crowd-sourced internet workers. Using a classic coin-flip experiment, we first confirm that a substantial majority of Mechanical Turk workers both shirk and lie when reporting the number of heads flipped. We then demonstrate that lying can be reduced by first asking each worker to swear voluntarily on his or her honor to tell the truth in subsequent economic decisions. Even in this online, purely anonymous environment, the oath significantly reduced the percent of subjects telling “big” lies (by roughly 27%), but did not affect shirking. We also explore whether a truth-telling oath can be used as a screening device if implemented after decisions have been made. Conditional on flipping response, MTurk shirkers and workers who lied were significantly less likely to agree to an ex-post honesty oath. Our results suggest oaths may help elicit more truthful behavior, even in online crowd-sourced environments

Voici une synthèse magistrale sur les pratiques sociales des Français qui bouscule bien des idées reçues. Le contexte ? Les Français sont plus pessimistes que les autres européens. Pourquoi ? A cause manifestement de leur défiance vis-à-vis des institutions et de la société. Le résultat ? Leur bonheur privé dépend, plus qu’ailleurs, de leur richesse personnelle. Les différents contributeurs de ce livre s’interrogent sur le rapport de l’argent et des Français, sur leur générosité envers les oeuvres caritatives et sur leur rapport à l’impôt. Ils élargissent aussi le champ de l’analyse de nos comportements en décrivant la manière dont les couples se coordonnent pour gérer leur passage à la retraite. Ils décryptent le monde très particulier du football, illustré par le montant des transferts de joueurs qui atteint chaque saison des nouveaux records et constatent l’éclatement du monde du travail dont la polarisation des emplois est l’expression la plus visible. Au-delà de l’approche strictement économique, ce tableau ambitieux des nouvelles recherches en cours aide à mieux comprendre la société française et le monde qui l’entoure.

Electoral systems in which voters can cast preference votes for individual candidates within a party list are increasingly popular. To the best of our knowledge, there is no research on whether and how the scale used to evaluate candidates can affect electoral behavior and results. In this paper, we analyze data from an original voting experiment leveraging real-life political preferences and embedded in a nationally representative online survey in Austria. We show that the scale used by voters to evaluate candidates makes differences. For example, the possibility to give up to two points advantages male candidates because male voters are more likely to give ‘zero points’ to female candidates. Yet this pattern does not exist in the system in which voters can give positive and negative points because male voters seem reluctant to actively withdraw points from female candidates. We thus encourage constitution makers to think carefully about the design of preference voting.

In this study, we ask whether the U-shaped relationship between life satisfactionand age is flatter for individuals who are partnered. An analysis of cross-sectionalEU-SILC data indicates that the decline in life satisfaction from the teens to thefifties is almost four times larger for non-partnered than for partnered individuals,whose life satisfaction essentially follows a slight downward trajectory with age.However, the same analysis applied to three panel datasets (BHPS, SOEP andHILDA) reveals a U-shape for both groups, albeit somewhat flatter for the partneredthan for the non-partnered individuals. We suggest that the difference between thecross-sectional and the panel results reflects compositional effects: i.e., there isa significant shift of the relatively dissatisfied out of marriage in mid-life. Thesecompositional effects tend to flatten the U-shape in age for the partnered individualsin the cross-sectional data.

The common finding of a zero or negative correlation between the presence of children and parental well-being continues to generate research interest. We consider international data, including well over one million observations on Europeans from 11 years of Eurobarometer surveys. We first replicate this negative finding, both in the overall data and then for most different marital statuses. Children are expensive: controlling for financial difficulties turns our estimated child coefficients positive. We argue that difficulties paying the bills explain the pattern of existing results by parental education and income and by country income and social support. Last, we underline that not all children are the same, with stepchildren commonly having a more negative correlation with well-being than children from the current relationship.

Existing estimates of optimal climate policy ignore the possibility that carbon tax revenues could be used in a progressive way; model results therefore typically imply that near-term climate action comes at some cost to the poor. Using the Nested Inequalities Climate Economy (NICE) model, we show that an equal per capita refund of carbon tax revenues implies that achieving a 2 °C target can pay large and immediate dividends for improving well-being, reducing inequality and alleviating poverty. In an optimal policy calculation that weighs the benefits against the costs of mitigation, the recommended policy is characterized by aggressive near-term climate action followed by a slower climb towards full decarbonization; this pattern—which is driven by a carbon revenue Laffer curve—prevents runaway warming while also preserving tax revenues for redistribution. Accounting for these dynamics corrects a long-standing bias against strong immediate climate action in the optimal policy literature

This paper considers and assesses the concept of social externalities through human interdependence, in relation to the economic analysis of externalities in the tradition of Pigou and Arrow, including the analysis of the commons. It argues that there are limits to economic analysis. Our proposal is to enlarge the perspective and start thinking about a broader framework in which can be attached the « externality » label and be scrutinized for the likely negative consequences that result from the divergence. A tentative and probably incomplete list of possible internalizing mechanisms includes: pricing and monetary incentives; altruism and solidarity; moral norms; reciprocity and mutual monitoring; centralized cooperative decision-making; and merger. There are clear reasons why the pricing mechanism is not appropriate in some cases. A more difficult question to answer is what factors determine which of the mechanisms is the appropriate one to rely on in a given sphere of relations and activities. The object of the paper is to encourage research and contributions from all the relevant disciplines of social sciences about the pervasive human interdependence that the notion of social externalities tries to capture.

Demography studies the characteristics of populations. One such characteristic is well-being: this was the subject of the 2019 Wittgenstein Conference. Here, I discuss how objective well-being domains can be summarised to produce an overall well-being score, and how taking self-reported (subjective) well-being into account may help in this effort. But given that there is more than one type of subjective well-being score, we would want to know which one is “best”. We would also need to decide whose well-being counts, or counts more than that of others. Finally, I briefly mention the potential role of adaptation and social comparisons in the calculation of societal well-being.

L’analyse économique des programmes d’activité physique contribue à faire avancer la question de la prise en charge de ces programmes par la collectivité.L’efficacité de l’activité physique et sportive dans la prévention [66] ou le traitement de maladies chroniques est aujourd’hui établie de manière robuste [31, 53]. Sur la base des études disponibles, un certain nombre de pays a déjà adopté des mesures visant à développer l’activité physique sur un continuum entre la pratique sportive régulière, l’activité physique en prévention et le traitement de certaines pathologies (seule ou en complément d’une autre thérapeutique). Pionnière en la matière, la Suède autorise depuis deux décennies déjà la prescription d’activité physique par le médecin généraliste aux patients à risque ou souffrant d’une pathologie chronique. En France, il aura fallu attendre la loi de santé de janvier 2016 pour que les médecins traitants aient la possibilité de prescrire une activité physique adaptée (APA) aux patients atteints d’une affection de longue durée (ALD). Les réseaux et dispositifs de sport santé se sont dès lors rapidement développés, souvent coordonnés et référencés au niveau local par les agences régionales de santé (ARS)

We here use panel data from the COME-HERE survey to track income inequality during COVID-19 in France, Germany,Italy, Spain and Sweden. Relative inequality in equivalent household disposable income among individuals changed in ahump-shaped way over 2020. An initial rise from January to May was more than reversed by September. Absoluteinequality also fell over this period. As such, policy responses may have been of more benefit for the poorer than thericher.

To what extent do childhood experiences continue to affect adult wellbeing over the life course? Previous work on this link has been carried out either at one particular adult age or for some average over adulthood. We here use two British birth-cohort datasets (the 1958 NCDS and the 1970 BCS) to map out the time profile of the effect of childhood experiences on adult outcomes, including life satisfaction. We find that the effects of many aspects of childhood do not fade away over time but are rather remarkably stable. In both birth-cohorts, child non-cognitive skills are the strongest predictors of adult life satisfaction at all ages. Of these, emotional health is the strongest. Childhood cognitive performance is more important than good conduct in explaining adult life satisfaction in the earlier NCDS cohort, whereas this ranking is inverted in the more recent BCS.

The COVID-19 pandemic has led many governments to implement lockdowns. While lockdowns may help to contain the spread of the virus, they may result in substantial damage to population well-being. We use Google Trends data to test whether the lockdowns implemented in Europe and America led to changes in well-being related topic search terms. Using differences-in-differences and a regression discontinuity design to evaluate the causal effects of lockdown, we find a substantial increase in the search intensity for boredom in Europe and the US. We also found a significant increase in searches for loneliness, worry and sadness, while searches for stress, suicide and divorce on the contrary fell. Our results suggest that people’s mental health may have been severely affected by the lockdown.

We find that if all countries adopt the necessary uniform global carbon tax and then return the revenues to their citizens on an equal per capita basis, it will be possible to meet a 2 °C target while also increasing wellbeing, reducing inequality and alleviating poverty. These results indicate that it is possible for a society to implement strong climate action without compromising goals for equity and development.

That wage satisfaction depends on reference wage is now an acquis of the empirical happiness literature. Employees care about their coworkers’ wage. They compare to different notions of reference wage and suffer from disadvantageous comparisons, more than they enjoy advantageous ones. However, reference wage sometimes acts in a positive way, as a carrier of information. In terms of methods, the empirical literature has developed in three stages. First, it started by enquiring about the statistical association between a notion of reference wage (or reference income) as defined by researchers, and self-declared satisfaction. Second, some researchers tried to elicit the direction of income comparisons by including direct questions in large surveys of the population. Third, researchers attempted to provide experimental evidence of the causal effect of comparisons on satisfaction (beyond the simple statistical association) using natural, field, and lab experiments.

We here use data from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (WLS) to provide one of the first analyses of the distal (early-life) and proximal (later-life) correlates of older-life subjective well-being. Unusually, we have two distinct measures of the latter: happiness and eudaimonia. Even after controlling for proximal covariates, outcomes at age 18 (IQ score, parental income and parental education) remain good predictors of well-being over 50 years later. In terms of the proximal covariates, mental health and social participation are the strongest predictors of both measures of well-being in older age. However, there are notable differences in the other correlates of happiness and eudaimonia. As such, well-being policy will depend to an extent on which measure is preferred.

Purpose This study investigates the impact of an intensive case management program on sick leave days, permanent work incapacity levels and treatment costs for severe vocational injuries set up by the French National Insurance Fund in five health insurance districts. Methods The method employed relies on a four-step matching procedure combining Coarsened Exact Matching and Propensity Score Matching, based on an original administrative dataset. Average Treatment effects on the Treated were estimated using a parametric model with a large set of covariates. Results After one-year follow-up, workers in the treatment group had higher sickness absence rates, with 22 extra days, and the program led to 2.7 (95% CI 2.3–3.1) times more diagnoses of permanent work incapacity in the treatment group. With an estimated yearly operational cost of 2,722 € per treated worker, the average total extra treatment cost was 4,569 € for treated workers, which corresponds to a cost increase of 29.2% for the insurance fund. Conclusions The higher costs found for the treatment group are mainly due to longer sick leave duration for the moderate severity group, implying higher cash transfers in the form of one-off indemnities. Even though workers in the treated group have more diagnoses of permanent work incapacity, the difference of severity between groups is small. Our results on longer sick leave duration are partly to be explained by interactions between the case managers and the occupational physicians that encouraged patients to stay longer off-work for better recovery, despite the higher costs that this represented for the insurance fund and the well-documented adverse side effects of longer periods off-work.

Can a group be an orthodox rational agent? This requires the group’s aggregate preferences to follow expected utility (static rationality) and to evolve by Bayesian updating (dynamic rationality). Group rationality is possible, but the only preference aggregation rules which achieve it (and are minimally Paretian and continuous) are the linear-geometric rules, which combine individual values linearly and combine individual beliefs geometrically. Linear-geometric preference aggregation contrasts with classic linear-linear preference aggregation, which combines both values and beliefs linearly, but achieves only static rationality. Our characterisation of linear-geometric preference aggregation has two corollaries: a characterisation of linear aggregation of values (Harsanyi’s Theorem) and a characterisation of geometric aggregation of beliefs.

We here address the causal relationship between maternal depression and child human capital using UK cohort data. We exploit the conditionally-exogenous variation in mothers’ genomes in an instrumental-variable approach, and describe the conditions under which mother’s genetic variants can be used as valid instruments. An additional episode of maternal depression between the child’s birth up to age nine reduces both their cognitive and non-cognitive skills by 20 to 45% of a SD throughout adolescence. Our results are robust to a battery of sensitivity tests addressing, among others, concerns about pleiotropy and the maternal transmission of genes to her child.

Agents are often assumed to have degrees of belief (“credences”) and also binary beliefs (“beliefs simpliciter”). How are these related to each other? A much-discussed answer asserts that it is rational to believe a proposition if and only if one has a high enough degree of belief in it. But this answer runs into the “lottery paradox”: the set of believed propositions may violate the key rationality conditions of consistency and deductive closure. In earlier work, we showed that this problem generalizes: there exists no local function from degrees of belief to binary beliefs that satisfies some minimal conditions of rationality and non-triviality. “Locality” means that the binary belief in each proposition depends only on the degree of belief in that proposition, not on the degrees of belief in others. One might think that the impossibility can be avoided by dropping the assumption that binary beliefs are a function of degrees of belief. We prove that, even if we drop the “functionality” restriction, there still exists no local relation between degrees of belief and binary beliefs that satisfies some minimal conditions. Thus functionality is not the source of the impossibility; its source is the condition of locality. If there is any non-trivial relation between degrees of belief and binary beliefs at all, it must be a “holistic” one. We explore several concrete forms this “holistic” relation could take.

We here consider the cognitive and noncognitive consequences on young adults of growing up with a mother who reported experiencing major financial problems. We use UK data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children to show that early childhood financial problems are associated with worse adolescent cognitive and noncognitive outcomes, controlling for both income and a set of standard variables, and in value‐added models controlling for children’s earlier age‐5 outcomes. The estimated effect of financial problems is almost always larger in size than that of income. Around one‐quarter to one‐half of the effect of financial problems on the noncognitive outcomes seems to transit through mother’s mental health.

Depuis sa création, il y a quatre ans, l’Observatoire du bien-être se donne la mission de scruter le bien-être des Français ; le présent rapport vise à donner une image de cette activité, et ce faisant, à dresser un portrait de la France au prisme du bien-être subjectif.Le travail, d’abord, qui joue un rôle primordial dans la satisfaction, non seulement à cause du revenu qu’il procure, mais aussi par les relations sociales qu’il occasionne et du sens qu’il donne à l’activité individuelle. C’est d’ailleurs surtout à travers la sphère professionnelle que le niveau d’éducation contribue à la satisfaction. On constate hélas que dans le domaine du travail, peut-être plus que dans tout autre, le célèbre « déficit de bonheur français » s’exprime à travers un niveau d’insatisfaction plus élevé que chez nos voisins européens. C’est peut-être pourquoi, à l’inverse de nombreux pays, le passage à la retraite ne semble pas constituer en France une charnière difficile, de nature à provoquer une baisse de bien-être, même s’il occasionne une perte de revenu. Pour les chômeurs, il représente même une sortie de la précarité et du stigmate, nettement favorable au bien-être.Les liens sociaux et privés ensuite, dont on mesure l’importance, en creux, par le sentiment de solitude particulièrement délétère qui s’exprime dans certaines communes du territoire français. C’est en effet dans les territoires en déclin démographique, d’où la vie sociale se retire, que l’on a vu récemment se manifester des signes de fort mécontentement : insatisfaction, abstention électorale, et manifestations de Gilets jaunes.Au total, les Français se classent plus mal que les autres Européens sur un grand nombre de mesures subjectives de bien-être malgré une situation beaucoup moins défavorable en matière d’indicateurs objectifs. Nous y voyons le signe d’une société inquiète, mal à l’aise avec les transformations qui la traversent. Peut-être aussi, dans une société centralisée où l’on attend beaucoup de l’Etat, est-il particulièrement angoissant de voir l’échelle nationale largement dépassée par l’ampleur des changements mondiaux. Le dernier chapitre de cet ouvrage ajoute une profondeur historique à l’analyse, et suggère que la notion de crise, apparue au milieu des années 1970, s’est durablement installée dans la société française, ainsi que le pessimisme et l’insatisfaction qui l’accompagnent.Ces observations, réalisées au cours des années passées, revêtent une teneur nouvelle à la lumière de la crise du Covid-19. Si le gouvernement fait face à un arbitrage cornélien entre la lutte contre l’épidémie et l’économie, il prend aussi progressivement conscience de la nécessité de préserver le bien-être et la santé mentale de la population.

We use annual data on over 150 countries between 2005 and 2018 to look at the relationship between subjective well-being (both cognitive and affective) and the Human Development Index (HDI). The HDI appears to be more closely related to cognitive than affective well-being. We also consider the relationships between the three HDI components (the Income, Health and Education Indices) and well-being, and find that, on average, the Income Index has the strongest predictive power. Importantly, we find that the three HDI components only matter equally in Western and rich countries. Our analysis contributes to the discussion about cultural sensitivity in paradigms of societal development in two ways. We first show that differences in preferences towards development aims exist. Second, we propose a weighting procedure for a culturally-sensitive version of the HDI.

Voici une synthèse magistrale sur les pratiques sociales des Français qui bouscule bien des idées reçues. Le contexte ? Les Français sont plus pessimistes que les autres européens. Pourquoi ? A cause manifestement de leur défiance vis-à-vis des institutions et de la société. Le résultat ? Leur bonheur privé dépend, plus qu’ailleurs, de leur richesse personnelle. Les différents contributeurs de ce livre s’interrogent sur le rapport de l’argent et des Français, sur leur générosité envers les œuvres caritatives et sur leur rapport à l’impôt. Ils élargissent aussi le champ de l’analyse de nos comportements en décrivant la manière dont les couples se coordonnent pour gérer leur passage à la retraite. Ils décryptent le monde très particulier du football, illustré par le montant des transferts de joueurs qui atteint chaque saison des nouveaux records et constatent l’éclatement du monde du travail dont la polarisation des emplois est l’expression la plus visible. Au-delà de l’approche strictement économique, ce tableau ambitieux des nouvelles recherches en cours aide à mieux comprendre la société française et le monde qui l’entoure.

We here consider the relationship between workplace gender measures and employees’ perceived job quality, where the former cover both the gender mix of workers with the same job title and the gender of the immediate boss. Data from the 2015 European Working Conditions Survey show that men’s job evaluation is higher in gender-balanced job positions at the workplace, while that of women is higher in either gender-balanced or male-dominated positions. The gender of the immediate boss plays no significant role in employee job evaluation. There is some evidence that these correlations differ by job-quality domains. We introduce co-worker support and help, gender discrimination, and unwanted sexual attention as possible mediators of the gender-mix correlations: these change the estimated coefficients only little. Our estimated correlations could therefore reflect a pure preference for job-position gender composition. Last, we use a bounding approach to show that our main results are robust to the potential influence of unobservables. Overall, job-position gender diversity is associated with higher worker well-being.

We use data from the COME-HERE longitudinal survey collected by the University of Luxembourg to assess the effects of the policy responses to the COVID-19 pandemic on life satisfaction in France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Sweden over the course of 2020. Policy responses are measured by the Stringency Index and the Economic Support Index from the Blavatnik School of Government. Stringency is systematically associated with lower life satisfaction, controlling for the intensity of the pandemic itself. This stringency effect is larger for women, those with weak ties to the labour market, and in richer households. The effect of the Economic Support is never statistically different from zero.

We consider a standard optimal taxation framework in which consumers’ preferences are separable in consumption and labor and identical over consumption, but are affected by consumption externalities. For every nonlinear, income-dependent pricing of goods there is a linear pricing scheme, combined with an adjusted income tax schedule, that leaves all consumers equally well-off and weakly increases the government’s budget. The result depends on whether a linear pricing scheme exists that keeps the aggregate amount of consumption at its initial level observed under nonlinear pricing. We provide sufficient conditions for the assumption to hold. If adjusting the income tax rate is not available, personalized prices for an externality can enhance social welfare if they are redistributive, that is, favor consumers with a larger marginal social value of income.

Savage famously contravened his own theory when first confronting the Allais Paradox, but then convinced himself that he had made an error. We examine the formal structure of Savage’s ‘error-correcting’ reasoning in the light of (i) behavioural economists’ claims to identify the latent preferences of individuals who violate conventional rationality requirements and (ii) Broome’s critique of arguments which presuppose that rationality requirements can be achieved through reasoning. We argue that Savage’s reasoning is not vulnerable to Broome’s critique, but does not provide support for the view that behavioural scientists can identify and counteract errors in people’s choices or preferences.

L’efficacité de l’action publique constitue une préoccupation croissante des autorités, qui sont amenées à solliciter de plus en plus souvent les résultats issus de la recherche en sciences économiques. La contribution de ces travaux à l’élaboration des politiques publiques tient à leur capacité à analyser et comprendre la manière dont les acteurs économiques réagissent aux évolutions de l’environnement dans lequel ils prennent leurs décisions. Ce raisonnement repose sur des hypothèses de comportement fortes, faisant l’objet d’un nouveau courant de recherche, l’économie comportementale, qui allie psychologie et économie afin d’affiner la compréhension des déterminants des décisions. Ce livre dresse un panorama des apports de ce nouveau courant à la définition et à l’évaluation des politiques publiques. Il décrit les nouveaux outils d’intervention, comme les nudges, tout en soulignant la pertinence des outils d’intervention traditionnels. Il en propose une application en matière d’économie de la santé, de choix d’épargne et de retraite, de politique environnementale et de régulation du marché du travail.

Can the main methods of social welfare analysis be extended to cover multiple species? Following a non-anthropocentric approach, we examine the pros and cons of various objective and subjective methods of well-being comparisons across species. We argue against normalizing by specific capacities but in favor of taking account of individual preferences and specializations. While many conceptual and practical difficulties remain, it appears possible to develop methods for the assessment of collective well-being of multi-species communities and ecosystems.

We propose strike mechanisms as a solution to the classical problem of Hurwicz and Schmeidler (1978) and Maskin (1999) according to which, in two-person societies, no Pareto efficient rule is Nash-implementable. A strike mechanism specifies the number of alternatives that each player vetoes. Each player simultaneously casts these vetoes and the mechanism selects randomly one alternative among the non-vetoed ones. For strict preferences over alternatives and under a very weak condition for extending preferences over lotteries, these mechanisms are deterministic-in-equilibrium. They Nash implement a class of Pareto efficient social choice rules called Pareto-and-veto rules. Moreover, under mild richness conditions on the domain of preferences over lotteries, any Pareto efficient Nash-implementable rule is a Pareto-and-veto rule and hence is implementable through a strike mechanism.

We here consider the link between individual financial profiles over time and well‐being, as measured by life satisfaction. We in particular look at annual self‐reported financial worsening and improvement information for over 25,000 individuals in Australian panel data from 2002 to 2017. We first find that satisfaction falls (rises) with a contemporaneous major financial worsening (improvement), with the largest correlation being with financial worsening. Second, the experience of these financial events in the past continues to be linked to current well‐being. Last, only the order of financial‐improvement spells relates to well‐being: a given number of past years where finances deteriorated has the same association with current well‐being whether the deterioration occurred in one continuous spell or was interrupted. We last show that these associations are heterogeneous over the distribution of well‐being.

Entre 2004 et 2014, le nombre d’actionnaires en France a diminué d’environ 50%. Cette frilosité des épargnants observée après la crise de 2008 semble cependant aujourd’hui moins d’actualité, d’autant plus que l’année 2017 a été marquée par une réforme fiscale visant à soutenir l’actionnariat:mise en place d’une flat tax et suppression de l’ISF, remplacé par l’impôt sur la fortune immobilière. Nous analysons ici les portefeuilles risqués des ménages français à partir des deux dernières vagues (2014-2015 et 2017-2018) de l’enquête «Histoire de vie et patrimoine» de l’INSEE, qui présentent aujourd’hui l’avantage d’être pénalisées. Bien que l’enquête 2017-2018 arrive un peu tôt pour étudier l’impact de ces réformes, cet article propose une analyse originale de la dynamique des portefeuilles risqués des ménages sur les trois dernières années,juste avant (et peu après) la mise en œuvre de ces politiques. Nous montrons tout d’abord que la demande d’actifs risqués dépend fortement du niveau de richesse des ménages et des anticipations de rendement sur le marché boursier, deux variables qui ont vraisemblablement été affectées par les récentes réformes fiscales. Ces données permettent également d’évaluer si l’annonce de ces réformes a eu une incidence sur la demande d’actions.

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to widespread school shutdowns, with many continuing distance education via online-learning platforms. We here estimate the causal effects of online education on student exam performance using administrative data from Chinese Middle Schools. Taking a difference-in-differences approach, we find that receiving online education during the COVID-19 lockdown improved student academic results by 0.22 of a standard deviation, relative to pupils without learning support from their school. Not all online education was equal: students who were given recorded online lessons from external higher-quality teachers had higher exam scores than those whose lessons were recorded by teachers from their own school. The educational benefits of distance learning were the same for rural and urban students, but the exam performance of students who used a computer for online education was better than those who used a smartphone. Last, while everyone except the very-best students performed better with online learning, it was low achievers who benefited from teacher quality.

In a competitive business environment, dishonesty can pay. Self-interested executives and managers can have incentive to shade the truth for personal gain. In response, the business community has considered how to commit these executives and managers to a higher ethical standard. The MBA Oath and the Dutch Bankers Oath are examples of such a commitment device. The question we test herein is whether the oath can be used as an effective form of ethics management for future executives/managers-who for our experiment we recruited from a leading French business school-by actually improving their honesty. Using a classic Sender-Receiver strategic game experiment, we reinforce professional identity by pre-selecting the group to which Receivers belong. This allows us to determine whether taking the oath deters lying among future managers. Our results suggest « yes and no. » We observe that these future executives/managers who took a solemn honesty oath as a Sender were (a) significantly more likely to tell the truth when the lie was detrimental to the Receiver, but (b) were not more likely to tell the truth when the lie was mutually beneficial to both the Sender and Receiver. A joint product of our design is our ability to measure in-group bias in lying behavior in our population of subjects (comparing behavior of subjects in the same and different business schools). The experiment provides clear evidence of a lack of such bias.

Does giving taxpayers a voice over the destination of tax revenues lead to more honest income declarations? Previous experiments have shown that giving participants the opportunity to select the organization that receives their tax funds tends to increase tax compliance. The aim of this paper is to assess whether this increase in compliance is induced by the sole fact of giving subjects a choice—a “direct democracy effect”. To that aim, we ask participants to a tax evasion game to choose, in a collective or individual choice setting, between two very similar organizations which provide the same social (ecological) benefits. We elicit compliance for both organizations before the choice is made so as to control for the counter-factual compliance decision. We find that democracy does not increase compliance, and even observe a slight negative effect—in particular for women. Our results confirm the existence of a commitment effect of democracy, leading to favor more the selected organization when it was actively chosen. The commitment effect of democracy is however not enough to overcome the decrease in the level of compliance. Thanks to response times data, we show that prior choice on similar options as compared to a purely random selection weakens the preference for honesty. One important field application of our results is that democracy in tax spending must offer real choices to tax payers to improve compliance.

This article looks back over the different dimensions of financial literacy: theoretical, methodological, empirical and political. The theoretical foundations of the notion of financial literacy are presented with reference to recent contributions by psychological or behavioural economics: « household finance » refers to the concept of financial literacy based on the empirical dead-ends of standard saver theory. This raises the fundamental question as to how to measure and evaluate financial literacy. Here, we are especially interested in the empirical robustness of a standard measure of financial literacy based on three straightforward questions (interest calculations, notion of inflation and risk diversification). Is this measure adequate or do other definitions need to be developed? We use original data from a survey conducted in 2017 that proposes alternative measures. Our results show that the measure in most studies seems a good proxy for a more global measure based on a larger battery of similar questions. Nevertheless, the global measure improves the statistical quality of the measure even though this more sophisticated measure does not statistically significantly improve behavioural regressions.

Based on linked administrative and survey panel data, we analyze the labour supply behaviour of physicians who could adopt either a standard fee-for-service contract or a mixed remuneration (MR) contract. Under MR, physicians received a per diem and a reduced fee for services provided. We present estimates of a structural discrete choice model that incorporates service intensity (services provided per hour) and contract choice into a labour supply framework. We use our estimates to predict (ex ante) the effects of contracts on physician behaviour and welfare, as measured by average equivalent variations. The supply of services is reduced under a MR contract, suggesting incentives matter. Hours spent seeing patients is less sensitive to incentives than the supply of services. Our results suggest that a reform forcing all physicians to adopt the MR system would have substantially larger effects on physician behaviour than were measured under the observed reform. A pure salary (per diem) reform would sharply reduce services but would increase time spent seeing patients.

Aims To predict the effects of perfect adherence to the French alcohol consumption guidelines, a maximum of 10 standard alcoholic drinks per week with no more than two standard alcoholic drinks per day, during a 36-year period (2014–50). Design This simulation study is an adaption of the Sheffield Alcohol Policy Model. The dose–response relationship between alcohol consumption and alcohol-attributable cancer risks was defined by cancer site-specific risk functions, each modelled as a continuous risk. These estimates were used to compute the potential impact fraction (PIF) associated with alcohol consumption by cancer site. Setting The French general adult population during a 36-year period (2014–50). Participants For the baseline scenario, the current distribution of consumption levels, the counterfactual scenario and perfect adherence to the French alcohol consumption guidelines, we generated for each gender and age group 1000 randomly distributed alcohol consumption values from calibrated group-specific gamma distribution. Measurements The predicted number of new cancer cases among men and women in France between 2015 and 2050 that could have been prevented by following the French government’s alcohol consumption guidelines. Findings The simulation predicted that perfect adherence to the French government’s alcohol consumption guidelines would prevent, on average, an estimated 15 952 cancer cases per year after the PIF reached its full effect, which would have represented 4.5% of new cancer cases in 2015. The number of averted cancer cases over the study period were highest for oral cavity, oropharynx and hypopharynx cancer (respectively, 118 462, 95% CI = 113 803–123 022 and 11 167, 95% CI = 10 149–12 229] for men and women; liver and intrahepatic bile ducts cancer (123 447, 95% CI = 112 581–133 404 and 2825, 95% CI = 2208,4095); colorectal cancer (89 859, 95% CI = 84 651–95 355 and 12 847, 95% CI = 11 545–14 245); and female breast cancer (61 649, 95% CI = 56 330–67 452). Conclusion This simulation study of the French general population predicted that perfect adherence to the French government’s alcohol consumption guidelines (no more than 10 standard alcoholic drinks per week and two per day) would prevent almost 16 000 cancer cases per year.

Introduction L’objectif principal de cet essai randomisé multicentrique (11 centres hospitaliers) est de démontrer l’efficience (analyse coût–utilité) d’une plateforme digitale (DOCMADI©) d’éducation thérapeutique possédant une composante communautaire et destinée aux patients avec IRC stade 5, dialysés ou transplantés, dans le cadre d’une promotion AP–HP, PRME 2015 (ministère de la Santé). Description Randomisation en 3 bras (pas d’accès à la plateforme [G1], accès sans [G2] et avec [G3] fonctionnalités communautaires). Les patients complètent 3 questionnaires en ligne (M0 conditionnant l’inclusion, M9, M18). Méthodes Critère de jugement principal : différence des coûts rapportés à la différence de survie ajustée à la qualité de vie. Critères secondaires : bénéfices cliniques (survie à M18, observance), effet sur l’organisation des soins (appels au service, passages aux urgences, événements indésirables évités), analyse des coûts et conséquences de l’intervention. Résultats Entre 05/2018 et 12/2020, 815 patients ont été randomisés et 539 inclus (G1 = 180, G2 = 189, G3 = 170), dont 78 au stade 5, 67 dialysés et 394 transplantés. Au 01/06/2021, 433 patients ont complété M9 et 323 M18. Les premiers résultats indiquent des freins à l’inclusion liés aux médecins (difficulté de toute étude clinique), aux patients (non-remplissage à M0) et à des problèmes techniques (logiciel ePro). L’utilisation de la plateforme a fortement augmenté en 2020, en particulier lors de la première vague épidémique de COVID-19, validant son intérêt comme outil d’information pour les centres participants. De nombreux « likes », commentaires et questions sur les forums ont permis de mieux comprendre les préoccupations des patients durant la crise sanitaire et validé l’utilité des fonctions sociales. Chiffres clefs d’utilisation de la plateforme pour l’année 2020 : 20 787 pages lues, 4657 téléchargements et jeux-tests joués plus de 1000 fois. Conclusion Les patients ont manifesté leur intérêt pour notre outil. L’analyse coût/utilité prévue en fin d’étude permettra d’évaluer son efficacité médico-économique.

Laws not only affect behavior due to changes in material payoffs, but they may also change the perception individuals have of social norms, either by shifting them directly or by providing information on these norms. Using detailed daily survey data and exploiting the introduction of lockdown measures in the UK in the context of the COVID-19 health crisis, we provide causal evidence that the law drastically changed the perception of the norms regarding social distancing behaviors. We show that this effect of laws on perceived norms is mostly driven by an informational channel and that the intervention made perceptions of social norms converge to the actual prevalent norm.

Purpose A small literature has shown that individual wellbeing varies with the price of company stock, but it is unclear whether this is due to wealth effects amongst those holding stock, or more general effects on sentiment, with individuals taking rising stock prices as an indicator of improvements in the economy. The authors contribute to this literature by using two data sets to establish the relationship between share prices on the one hand and worker wellbeing on the other. Design/methodology/approach First, the authors use over 20 years of British panel data to show that employee happiness and job satisfaction moves with share prices among those whose pay is partly determined by company fortunes. The authors then examine share price movements and employee stock holding in a single corporation and provide suggestive evidence that an increase in the firm’s stock price increases the well-being of those who belong to its employee share purchase plan (ESPP). These effects are greatest among those making the largest monthly contributions to the program who have the most to gain (or lose) from stock price fluctuations. There is also tentative evidence that the well-being effects of a higher share price are larger for those who hold more shares. Taken together these results suggest that, although stock price movements have little effect on well-being in the population at large, the well-being of those holding stock in their own company rises when the price of that stock is higher, suggesting the effects of share prices work at least partly via changes in wealth. Findings Taken together these results suggest that the wellbeing effects of share prices work at least partly via changes in wealth. Research limitations/implications The authors cannot be certain that the job satisfaction movements they see are causally linked to share plan participation and bonus receipt. Future research might fruitfully examine the mechanisms at play, and whether the effects identified here are linked to differences in employee motivation and effort over the business cycle. Practical implications Firms may wish to consider the appropriateness of linking their workers’ pay to firm performance through share plans or profit shares to establish whether this improves worker wellbeing. Social implications The utility of workers may increase where firms offer some compensation via a share plan or profit share. Originality/value The literature suggests a link between share price movements and worker wellbeing, but the reasons for the link are contested. Using two very different data sources, the authors are able to show that share price increases induce higher worker wellbeing, at least in part, through wealth effects.

Cet article revient sur les différents aspects du concept de « littératie financière » : politique, théorique, méthodologique et empirique. Les débats et les enjeux sur la culture économique sont apparus au début des années 2000. La recherche académique sur la finance des ménages s’est alors emparée du sujet en s’appuyant sur l’économie psychologique. Se pose alors la question de la mesure de la littératie financière : Big Three ou autres. Pour répondre à ces questions, nous utilisons des données récentes collectées en France (l’enquête FLIP : Financial LIteracy et Patrimoine). La partie comportementale s’intéresse à l’énigme de la participation sur le marché des actions, en étudiant le lien entre littératie financière et demande d’actifs risqués. La préconisation de plus en plus forte à développer des programmes d’éducation financière afin de pallier la faiblesse de la littératie pose alors la question de leur efficacité.

In the last round of the FIFA World Cup group stage, games for which the outcome does not affect the selection of the qualified teams are played with little enthusiasm. Furthermore, a team that has already qualified may take into account other factors, such as the opponents it will face in the next stage of the competition so that, depending on the results in the other groups and the scheduling of the next stage, winning the game may not be in its best interest. Even more critically, there may be situations in which a simple draw will qualify both teams for the next stage of the competition. Any situation in which the two opposing teams do not play competitively is detrimental to the sport, and, above all, can lead to collusion and match-fixing opportunities. We here develop a relatively general method of evaluating competitiveness and apply it to the current format of the World Cup group stage. We then propose changes to the current format in order to increase the stakes in the last round of games of the group stage, making games more exciting to watch and, at the same time, reducing any collusion opportunities. We appeal to the same method to evaluate a “groups of 3” format which will be introduced in the 2026 World Cup edition as well as a format similar to the one of the current Euro UEFA Cup.

A wealth of evidence in perceptual and economic decision-making research suggests that the subjective assessment of one option is influenced by the context. A series of studies provides evidence that the same coding principles apply to situations where decisions are shaped by past outcomes, that is, in reinforcement-learning situations. In bandit tasks, human behavior is explained by models assuming that individuals do not learn the objective value of an outcome, but rather its subjective, context-dependent representation. We argue that, while such outcome context-dependence may be informationally or ecologically optimal, it concomitantly undermines the capacity to generalize value-based knowledge to new contexts – sometimes creating apparent decision paradoxes.

Ce numéro de Connaissance de l’emploi est tiré d’un ouvrage (Arrondel et Duhautois, 2020) et montre comment le football féminin est en cours de structuration et tend vers la professionnalisation. Si le football masculin a atteint un certain régime d’équilibre dans son fonctionnement, au niveau de ses compétitions, tant nationales qu’internationales, et de ses clubs, il n’en est pas de même, pour l’instant, du football féminin : ses structures sont encore en évolution. Certains grands pays de football ne se sont lancés que récemment dans la professionnalisation de leur championnat féminin : en Europe, l’Angleterre en 2018 et bientôt l’Italie et l’Espagne (à partir de 2022). Dans ces pays, les clubs masculins les plus connus découvrent seulement aujourd’hui le football féminin. Même si c’est en France que les joueuses sont les mieux payées en moyenne, la professionnalisation au sens strict – gérée et organisée par une ligue – n’y est pas à l’ordre du jour car la Fédération Française de Football (FFF), qui gère le football féminin de haut niveau, ne semble pas vouloir en abandonner la gouvernance. En Asie, la fédération japonaise a également créé une Ligue professionnelle de football féminin en 2021 et l’Australie, en 2019, a fait un grand pas vers cette structure. En Amérique du Sud, la professionnalisation du football féminin a débuté il y a quelques années mais c’est en Amérique du Nord que tout a commencé il y a vingt ans.

There is great interest in understanding who in the population is resilient in the face of major life events, and who is not. In this paper we construct a revealed measure of adulthood psychological resilience by modelling individuals’ responses to ten adverse life events using a dynamic finite mixture regression model applied to 17 years of panel data. Our methodology accounts for non-random selection into events, and differences between individuals in anticipation, immediate response, and speed of adaptation. We find considerable heterogeneity in individuals’ responses to events such as major financial shocks, redundancy and bereavement. We also find that our measure of resilience is correlated with clinical measures of mental health, and that it significantly predicts the psychological response to out-of-sample events. The strongest predictor of our measure of resilience is internal locus of control, which is an individual’s belief that life outcomes are under their control.

Risques écologiques, économiques, politiques et géopolitiques : nos sociétés n’ont jamais été aussi convaincues de s’acheminer vers une série de catastrophes quasiment inévitables. Face à ces dangers, les réactions sont de plusieurs natures. Certains tentent, par des discours prophétiques, de déclencher une mobilisation en pointant des risques particuliers. D’autres proposent une vision plus holiste du fonctionnement du monde qui intègre la possibilité des catastrophes, voire de l’apocalypse. Des groupes survivalistes tentent de se préparer dès à présent au monde postcataclysme. Des juristes proposent, pour les protéger, de donner des droits aux animaux, voire à la nature. Mais en majorité, les « décideurs » peinent à se mobiliser et les sociétés contemporaines semblent s’accommoder des menaces et des « poisons légaux » qu’elles s’infligent. Les études de cas réunies dans cet ouvrage collectif apportent des éclairages inédits aux interrogations d’un monde qui se sent en danger.

This chapter describes the main impact evaluation methods, both experimental and quasi-experimental, and the statistical model underlying them. Some of the most important methodological advances to have recently been put forward in this field of research are presented. We focus not only on the need to pay particular attention to the accuracy of the estimated effects, but also on the requirement to replicate assessments, carried out by experimentation or quasi-experimentation, in order to distinguish false positives from proven effects.

We study fairness in economies where humans consume one private good and one public good representing the welfare of other species. We show that a social evaluator cannot be egalitarian with respect to humans while always respecting humans’ unanimous preferences. One solution is to respect unanimous preferences only when doing so does not lead to a decrease in the welfare of other species. Social preferences satisfying these properties reveal surprising connections between concerns for other species, egalitarianism among humans, and unanimity: the latter two imply a form of dictatorship from humans with the strongest preference for the welfare of other species. (JEL D11, D63, H41)

Market heterogeneity may affect the distributional incidence of nutritional taxes if households sort by income across markets with different characteristics. We use scanner data to analyse the distributional incidence of the 2012 French soda tax on Exact Price Indices that measure consumer welfare from the price and availability of softdrinks at a local level. While the average pass-through was small-about 45 per cent-, tax incidence was significantly higher in low-income and less-competitive markets. Market heterogeneity ultimately has substantial distributional effects: it accounts for at least 33 per cent of the difference in welfare variation between low-and high-income consumers.

Background Successful implementation and long-term maintenance of healthy supermarkets initiatives are crucial to achieving potential population health benefits. Understanding barriers and enablers of implementation of real-world trials will enhance wide-scale implementation. This process evaluation of a healthy supermarket intervention sought to describe (i) customer, retailer and stakeholder perspectives on the intervention; (ii) intervention implementation; and (iii) implementation barriers and enablers. Methods Eat Well @ IGA was a 12-month randomised controlled trial conducted in 11 Independent Grocers of Australia (IGA) chain supermarkets in regional Victoria, Australia (5 intervention and 6 wait-listed control stores). Intervention components included trolley and basket signage, local area and in-store promotion, and shelf tags highlighting the healthiest packaged foods. A sequential mixed-methods process evaluation was undertaken. Customer exit surveys investigated demographics, and intervention recall and perceptions. Logistic mixed-models estimated associations between customer responses and demographics, with store as random effect. Supermarket staff surveys investigated staff demographics, interactions with customers, and intervention component feedback. Semi-structured stakeholder interviews with local government, retail and academic partners explored intervention perceptions, and factors which enabled or inhibited implementation, maintenance and scalability. Interviews were inductively coded to identify key themes. Results Of 500 customers surveyed, 33%[95%CI:23,44] recalled the Eat Well @ IGA brand and 97%[95%CI:93,99] agreed that IGA should continue its efforts to encourage healthy eating. The 82 staff surveyed demonstrated very favourable intervention perceptions. Themes from 19 interviews included that business models favour sales of unhealthy foods, and that stakeholder collaboration was crucial to intervention design and implementation. Staff surveys and interviews highlighted the need to minimise staff time for project maintenance and to regularly refresh intervention materials to increase and maintain salience among customers. Conclusions This process evaluation found that interventions to promote healthy diets in supermarkets can be perceived as beneficial by retailers, customers, and government partners provided that barriers including staff time and intervention salience are addressed. Collaborative partnerships in intervention design and implementation, including retailers, governments, and academics, show potential for encouraging long-term sustainability of interventions.

Social epistemology studies knowledge in social contexts. Knowledge is ‘social’ when its holder communicates with or learns from others (Epistemology in groups), or when its holder is a group as a whole, literally or metaphorically (Epistemology of groups). Group knowledge can emerge explicitly, through aggregation procedures like voting, or implicitly, through institutions like deliberation or prediction markets. In the truth-tracking paradigm, group beliefs aim at truth, and group decisions at ‘correctness’, in virtue of external facts that are empirical or normative, real or constructed, universal or relativistic, etc. Procedures and institutions are evaluated by epistemic performance: Are they truth-conducive? Do groups become ‘wiser’ than their members? We review several procedures and institutions, discussing epistemic successes and failures. Jury theorems provide formal arguments for epistemic success. Some jury theorems misleadingly conclude that ‘huge groups are infallible’, an artifact of inappropriate premises. Others have defensible premises, and still conclude that groups outperform individuals, without being infallible.

Depuis l’article pionnier de Feldstein (1974), l’impact d’un système de retraite sur le niveau d’épargne fait l’objet de nombreux travaux aux résultats parfois controversés. Selon l’hypothèse standard du cycle de vie, un individu qui anticipe une perte de niveau de vie à la retraite devrait, toutes choses égales par ailleurs, épargner davantage. C’est à cette question que nous nous intéressons ici. Pour cela, nous considérons que les individus anticipent de façon plus satisfaisante leur taux de remplacement (à partir de leur profil de salaires) qu’un montant de pension au moment du départ en retraite. Nous étudions alors les effets d’une variation anticipée de ce taux de remplacement sur l’épargne financière des ménages, en tenant compte à la fois des évolutions anticipées de carrière et des réformes des retraites. Nous mobilisons la vague2012 de l’enquête PAT€R portant sur la population française qui dispose de riches informations au niveau individuel sur les anticipations de pension. Nos estimations économétriques montrent qu’un plus faible (resp. plus élevé) taux de remplacement anticipé est relié, de façon significative, à un taux d’épargne financière plus élevé (resp. plus faible).

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the potential for segmentation in hospital markets, using the French case where private for-profit providers play an important role having nearly 25% of market shares, and where prices are regulated, leading to quality competition. Using a stylized economic model of hospital competition, we investigate the potential for displacement between vertically differentiated public and private providers, focusing on maternity units where user choice is central. Building over the model, we test the following three hypotheses. First, the number of public maternity units is likely to be much larger in less populated departments than in more populated ones. Second, as the number of public maternity units decreases, the profitability constraint should allow more private players into the market. Third, private units are closer substitutes to other private units than to public units. Building an exhaustive and nationwide data set on the activity of maternity services linked to detailed data at a hospital level, we use an event study framework, which exploits two sources of variation: (1) The variation over time in the number of maternity units and (2) the variation in users’ choices. We find support for our hypotheses, indicating that segmentation is at work in these markets with asymmetrical effects between public and private sectors that need to be accounted for when deciding on public market entry or exit.

This paper revisits two classical problems in the theory of voting-viz. the divided majority problem and the strategic revelation of information by majority vote-in the light of evolutionarily founded partial Kantian morality. It is shown that, compared to electorates consisting of purely self-interested voters, such Kantian morality helps voters solve coordination problems and improves the information aggregation properties of equilibria, even for modest levels of morality.

Il est communément acquis que la confiance est la vertu élémentaire de toute vie sociale : sans confiance, les conduites de nos semblables seraient imprévisibles et dangereuses, alors qu’elle permet d’anticiper leurs actions et réactions. Mais l’établissement de la confiance repose sur des dispositifs culturels, institutionnels, sociaux et, souvent, imaginaires et religieux. Or, force est de reconnaître que nos sociétés contemporaines sont perturbées par des crises de confiance aux manifestations très diverses : mise en cause des élites politiques, du savoir scientifique et de l’expertise, succès des théories du complot, etc. Dans le même temps, ces crises n’empêchent pas la construction d’autres modalités de la confiance. S’il importe donc d’analyser la manière dont elle est affaiblie, voire détruite, il faut aussi saisir la production continue de la confiance sous des formes nouvelles. Tel est l’objet de cet ouvrage collectif, qui réunit des contributions originales de chercheurs mobilisant nombre de disciplines des sciences humaines et sociales : histoire, anthropologie, psychologie, économie, sociologie, sciences politiques, sciences de la communication… Ces approches plurielles contribuent à éclairer un thème qui embrasse la totalité de la vie des sociétés et peut se décliner en de multiples questions et objets.

Political parties are key actors in electoral democracies: they organize the legislature, form governments, and citizens choose their representatives by voting for them. How citizens evaluate political parties and how well the parties that citizens evaluate positively perform thus provide useful tools to estimate the quality of representation from the individual’s perspective. We propose a measure that can be used to assess party preference representation at both the individual and aggregate levels, both in government and in parliament. We calculate the measure for over 160,000 survey respondents following 111 legislative elections held in 38 countries. We find little evidence that the party preferences of different socio-economic groups are systematically over or underrepresented. However, we show that citizens on the right tend to have higher representation scores than their left-wing counterparts. We also find that whereas proportional systems do not produce higher levels of representation on average, they reduce variance in representation across citizens.

This paper provides an empirical assessment of the effects of age and baseline health on the Value per Statistical Life (VSL) by reporting the results of a compensating wage differential for occupational fatality risk in France. We exploit Constances, a novel population-based cohort that combines respondents’ full medical history, elicited using face-to-face interviews with physicians, with respondents’ work history, extracted from administrative records. Focusing on blue-collar males, aged between 20 and 59 years of age, we find an average VSL estimate of at least 6.5 million euros. Our results suggest that VSL decreases with age and with better baseline health.

We set out to explore how precarious workers, particularly those employed in the gig economy, balance financial uncertainty, health risks, and mental well-being. We surveyed and interviewed precarious workers in France during the COVID-19 crisis, in March and April 2020. We oversampled gig economy workers, in particular in driving and food delivery occupations (hereafter drivers and bikers), residing in metropolitan areas. These workers cannot rely on stable incomes and are excluded from the labor protections offered to employees, features which have been exacerbated by the crisis. We analyzed outcomes for precarious workers during the mandatory lockdown in France as an extreme case to better understand how financial precarity relates to health risks and mental well-being. Our analysis revealed that three weeks into the lockdown, 56% of our overall sample had stopped working and respondents had experienced a 28% income drop on average. Gig economy drivers reported a significant 20 percentage point larger income decrease than other workers in our sample. Bikers were significantly more likely to have continued working outside the home during the lockdown. Yet our quantitative analysis also revealed that stress and anxiety levels were not higher for these groups, and that bikers in fact reported significantly lower stress levels during the lockdown. While this positive association between being a biker and mental health may be interpreted in different ways, our qualitative data led to a nuanced understanding of the effect of gig work on mental well-being in this population group.

La mise en place du dispositif des chartes d’engagements volontaires de progrès nutritionnels marque un tournant de la politique française de santé nutritionnelle développée depuis 2001 au travers du Plan national nutrition santé (PNNS). La mise en place du PNNS marquait une renaissance des actions de prévention nutritionnelle qui, avec l’entrée dans l’abondance alimentaire, s’étaient peu à peu désintéressées de la population générale pour se focaliser sur des risques concernant des populations spécifiques (personnes âgées, femmes enceintes, etc.). Le PNNS s’appuyait sur un rapport d’expertise du Haut comité de la santé publique de juin 2000, qui hissait la politique de santé nutritionnelle au rang des politiques de lutte contre le tabagisme et l’alcoolisme et justifiait la transformation de l’alimentation en facteur de risque épidémiologique par des évolutions conjointes de l’offre alimentaire (du fait de l’industrialisation et de la mondialisation) et de la demande (les modes de consommation alimentaire) (Hercberg, Tallec, 2000). Alors que le rapport Hercberg-Tallec proposait explicitement d’utiliser des outils visant à réguler le marché afin de « contribuer à l’atteinte des objectifs de santé publique retenus », le premier PNNS (2001-2005) concentrait ses actions sur les seuls consommateurs [1] [1]Concernant l’offre alimentaire, le rapport proposait notamment… . Il s’agissait avant tout d’une politique d’éducation pour la santé, articulée autour de la popularisation des repères nutritionnels (« 5 fruits et légumes par jour ») et de leur diffusion via des campagnes d’information, générales ou ciblées. Par contraste, l’introduction des chartes dans le second PNNS visait à modifier l’offre alimentaire, en escomptant que quelques accords conclus avec des entreprises leaders incitent toutes les entreprises à modifier la qualité de leur offre.

L’expérience de la Convention Citoyenne pour le Climat (CCC), dans laquelle 150 citoyen·nes tiré·es au sort ont travaillé pendant sept sessions de trois jours (plus deux à distance) d’octobre 2019 à juin 2020, et rendu leurs 149 propositions au Président de la République en juin 2020 pour parvenir à « réduire les émissions de gaz à effet de serre d’au moins 40 % d’ici 2030 dans un esprit de justice sociale », est un exercice démocratique inédit tant par son ambition que son ampleur. La CCC a fait l’objet d’un dispositif original de suivi. Suite à un appel à manifestation d’intérêt lancé début septembre 2019 par le Comité de gouvernance, une quarantaine de chercheuses et chercheurs se sont engagé·es individuellement ou par équipe dans l’observation directe de l’ensemble des modalités de travail de la CCC. Ce collectif très pluridisciplinaire a rassemblé des chercheuses et chercheurs en sciences sociales s’intéressant à l’objet même de la Convention – la réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre –, à ses modalités et à ses résultats en termes de politiques climatiques ou d’exercice démocratique, aux conditions sociopolitiques de son émergence et de prise en compte de ses résultats, à la capacité de citoyen·nes de juger d’arbitrages sur lesquels butent les politiques ou les expert·es, et aux modalités de leur délibération sur des changements de grande ampleur. L’observation directe des délibérations entre les citoyen·nes à chacune des tables de discussion était couplée avec une enquête quantitative par questionnaires, à chaque session, pour sonder les valeurs des citoyen·nes, leurs attitudes envers le changement climatique et leurs opinions sur des mesures de politique publique, et sur la qualité des échanges dans leur assemblée, avec quelques questions répétées pour saisir les changements dans la durée de la CCC. Dans un esprit d’ouverture des données de recherche au public, l’ensemble des données quantitatives collectées par ce collectif de chercheuses et chercheurs est rendu public. Ces données sont publiées en trois volumes : (A) Données brutes d’observation de la Convention citoyenne pour le climat. Volume A — Une « France en miniature ». Données sociodémographiques issues du tirage au sort (halshs-03910234), et, pour les données issues du dépouillement des questionnaires, (B) Données brutes d’observation de la Convention citoyenne pour le climat. Volume B — La représentativité de la CCC. Comparaison des réponses des citoyens à des questions posées dans des enquêtes nationales (halshs-03961042) et (C) Données brutes d’observation de la Convention citoyenne pour le climat. Volume C — Les réponses de la CCC session par session (ce volume C assemble huit livrets : un par session) (halshs-03961055). Il convient de garder à l’esprit qu’il s’agit de données brutes, sans analyse ni interprétation, elles n’ont donc en aucun cas valeur de résultats. Plusieurs analyses des chercheuses et chercheurs du collectif utilisant ces données ont été publiées en 2022 ou le seront en 2023, en particulier : (1) Giraudet L.-G. et al., 2022, « “Co-construction” in Deliberative Democracy: Lessons from the French Citizens’ Convention for Climate », Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, DOI:10.1057/s41599-022-01212-6, (2) Landemore H., Fourniau J.-M. (dir.), 2022, Les assemblées citoyennes, une nouvelle forme de représentation démocratique ?, dossier du n° 34 (2022/3) de la revue Participations, https://www.cairn.info/revue-participations-2022-3.htm et (3) Reber B., Courant D. (dir.), à paraître, Convention citoyenne pour le climat. Démocratie délibérative et transition écologique juste, Paris, ISTE.

La mise en place du dispositif des chartes d’engagements volontaires de progrès nutritionnels marque un tournant de la politique française de santé nutritionnelle développée depuis 2001 au travers du Plan national nutrition santé (PNNS). La mise en place du PNNS marquait une renaissance des actions de prévention nutritionnelle qui, avec l’entrée dans l’abondance alimentaire, s’étaient peu à peu désintéressées de la population générale pour se focaliser sur des risques concernant des populations spécifiques (personnes âgées, femmes enceintes, etc.). Le PNNS s’appuyait sur un rapport d’expertise du Haut comité de la santé publique de juin 2000, qui hissait la politique de santé nutritionnelle au rang des politiques de lutte contre le tabagisme et l’alcoolisme et justifiait la transformation de l’alimentation en facteur de risque épidémiologique par des évolutions conjointes de l’offre alimentaire (du fait de l’industrialisation et de la mondialisation) et de la demande (les modes de consommation alimentaire) (Hercberg, Tallec, 2000). Alors que le rapport Hercberg-Tallec proposait explicitement d’utiliser des outils visant à réguler le marché afin de « contribuer à l’atteinte des objectifs de santé publique retenus », le premier PNNS (2001-2005) concentrait ses actions sur les seuls consommateurs.

Political parties are key actors in electoral democracies: they organize the legislature, form governments, and citizens choose their representatives by voting for them. How citizens evaluate political parties and how well the parties that citizens evaluate positively perform thus provide useful tools to estimate the quality of representation from the individual’s perspective. We propose a measure that can be used to assess party preference representation at both the individual and aggregate levels, both in government and in parliament. We calculate the measure for over 160,000 survey respondents following 111 legislative elections held in 38 countries. We find little evidence that the party preferences of different socio-economic groups are systematically over or underrepresented. However, we show that citizens on the right tend to have higher representation scores than their left-wing counterparts. We also find that whereas proportional systems do not produce higher levels of representation on average, they reduce variance in representation across citizens.

En 29 fiches, cet ouvrage propose aux étudiants non spécialistes de l’économie, un ouvrage accessible qui leur permet de comprendre les théories et les mécanismes les plus importants en économie du sport. Synthèse de l’histoire du sport moderne, du XIXe siècle à nos jours Les clubs sportifs professionnels Les championnats de sport professionnel : organisation, compétitivité et demande Financement du sport professionnel Le marché du travail des sportifs professionnels Rationnalité et irrationnalité dans le sport

Dans tous les pays développés, la prise en compte de la qualité dans la régulation des systèmes de santé est au cœur des préoccupations des pouvoirs publics. La recherche de l’efficience, aussi nécessaire soit-elle, ne saurait en effet conduire à des ajustements à la baisse de la qualité des soins. La perspective d’utiliser des indicateurs de qualité dans la rémunération des producteurs fait aujourd’hui son chemin, d’autant que les progrès accomplis dans la mesure de la qualité permettent de disposer d’une vaste palette d’indicateurs. En matière de mesure, les évolutions marquantes à l’étranger sont la combinaison d’indicateurs de processus et de résultats d’une part, et d’autre part, le recueil de plus en plus fréquent de la perspective patient, tant pour l’appréciation des résultats de santé que pour l’expérience de la qualité des soins. Quant à la prise en compte explicite de la qualité dans les schémas de rémunération, elle est aujourd’hui effective, avec plus ou moins de succès, dans plusieurs pays à l’étranger. L’objet de cet article est de faire le point sur les développements récents à l’étranger et en France, concernant la mesure de la qualité des soins et sur les perspectives ouvertes par son usage en matière de rémunération des producteurs de soins.

After several decades in which shareholder value has been promoted as the mostrational goal a corporation should pursue, questions are being raised, doubts are arising, and criticism is becoming louder and louder. Among the alternatives to shareholder value that are emerging, the idea that managers should be attentive to the interests of all stakeholders is gaining ground. In this paper, three questions are ex-amined:• How could shareholder value be so successful? There must be economic mechanisms that make it a prominent option for the organization of the business sector.• What is the contribution of a productive firm to society and how can it be maximized? A firm does benefit many stake-holders, and it is possible to rigorously define the total benefit it brings to them.• How can the stakeholder approach be promoted and implemented concretely in a market economy that puts pressure on most firms to maximize profit rather than focusing on the total surplus generated?

We set out to explore how precarious workers, particularly those employed in the gig economy, balance financial uncertainty, health risks, and mental well-being. We surveyed and interviewed precarious workers in France during the COVID-19 crisis, in March and April 2020. We oversampled gig economy workers, in particular in driving and food delivery occupations (hereafter drivers and bikers), residing in metropolitan areas. These workers cannot rely on stable incomes and are excluded from the labor protections offered to employees, features which have been exacerbated by the crisis. We analyzed outcomes for precarious workers during the mandatory lockdown in France as an extreme case to better understand how financial precarity relates to health risks and mental well-being. Our analysis revealed that 3 weeks into the lockdown, 56% of our overall sample had stopped working and respondents had experienced a 28% income drop on average. Gig economy drivers reported a significant 20 percentage point larger income decrease than other workers in our sample. Bikers were significantly more likely to have continued working outside the home during the lockdown. Yet our quantitative analysis also revealed that stress and anxiety levels were not higher for these groups and that bikers in fact reported significantly lower stress levels during the lockdown. While this positive association between being a biker and mental health may be interpreted in different ways, our qualitative data led to a nuanced understanding of the effect of gig work on mental well-being in this population group.

L’évasion fiscale est un sujet qui se dérobe aux outils de l’analyse économique traditionnelle. D’une part, comme toute activité illégale, l’évasion fiscale échappe à l’observation du chercheur en même temps qu’elle se dissimule aux autorités : l’analyse empirique de son ampleur, de ses déterminants et de la manière dont différents dispositifs l’affectent est nécessairement très limitée. D’autre part, sur le plan théorique, l’application simple du calcul coût-bénéfice auquel est supposé se livrer le contribuable « rationnel » conduit à un paradoxe : contrairement à une idée largement répandue, les bénéfices de l’évasion fiscale sont tellement élevés, et le risque de sanction est tellement faible, que l’on peut s’étonner qu’elle soit aussi peu pratiquée dans l’ensemble des économies développées. Plutôt que l’évasion fiscale, c’est donc la « soumission fiscale » qui en constitue le pendant, la disposition à payer l’impôt, qu’il convient d’expliquer pour en comprendre les déterminants. Le double défi que posent les décisions d’évasion fiscale à l’analyse économique n’a pu être relevé que très récemment, grâce à l’émergence, au cours des vingt dernières années, d’une nouvelle approche, l’économie comportementale, qui s’appuie sur la psychologie pour mieux comprendre les comportements économiques ; et, conjointement, d’une nouvelle méthode, l’économie expérimentale, qui permet d’étudier empiriquement les comportements économiques sur lesquels il est difficile de collecter des données convaincantes. Cet opuscule rend compte des résultats de ces travaux et présente un panorama des outils de politique fiscale qui s’en dégagent.

It is widely assumed that celebrities are imbued with political capital and the power to move opinion. To understand the sources of that capital in the specific domain of sports celebrity, we investigate the popularity of global soccer superstars. Specifically, we examine players’ success in the Ballon d’Or—the most high-profile contest to select the world’s best player. Based on historical election results as well as an original survey of soccer fans, we find that certain kinds of players are significantly more likely to win the Ballon d’Or. Moreover, we detect an increasing concentration of votes on these kinds of players over time, suggesting a clear and growing hierarchy in the competition for soccer celebrity. Further analyses of support for the world’s two best players in 2016 (Lionel Messi and Cristiano Ronaldo) show that, if properly adapted, political science concepts like partisanship have conceptual and empirical leverage in ostensibly non-political contests.

Understanding how people rate their confidence is critical for the characterization of a wide range of perceptual, memory, motor and cognitive processes. To enable the continued exploration of these processes, we created a large database of confidence studies spanning a broad set of paradigms, participant populations and fields of study. The data from each study are structured in a common, easy-to-use format that can be easily imported and analysed using multiple software packages. Each dataset is accompanied by an explanation regarding the nature of the collected data. At the time of publication, the Confidence Database (which is available at https://osf.io/s46pr/) contained 145 datasets with data from more than 8,700 participants and almost 4 million trials. The database will remain open for new submissions indefinitely and is expected to continue to grow. Here we show the usefulness of this large collection of datasets in four different analyses that provide precise estimations of several foundational confidence-related effects.

There have been many studies of the impact of manager turnover on club performance, especially in European leagues. The methodology used and the measures for performance do not seem to affect the results of the different studies. However, studies using a control group have generally had inconclusive results (Scelles and Llorca, 2019). Our paper examines the impact of within-season manager change on club performance using information from the French Ligue 1 over the period 1998-2018. The clubs that change their manager have different characteristics from clubs that do not. Some may be observed (as points before dismissal), and others remain unobservable in the data. We use an empirical method that takes observable differences between clubs into account (through exact matching) and corrects for unobserved characteristics (through difference-in-differences). Our results show that the overall effects of a change of manager on team performance are insignificant, except in the short term where they are positive and statistically significant for the majority at the 10 % level. Decomposing between home and away games, the effect is only positive and significant for home games, suggesting that this would be more the consequence of fan pressure (through satisfaction with a board decision) than any difference in quality between the old and the new manager.

This article looks back over the different dimensions of financial literacy: theoretical, methodological and empirical. First, the theoretical foundations of the notion of financial literacy are presented with reference to recent contributions by psychological or behavioural economics: “household finance” refers to the concept of financial literacy based on the empirical dead-ends of standard saver theory. This raises the question as to how to measure and evaluate it. Is the “standard” methodology, based on a few straightforward questions (interest calculations, notion of inflation and risk diversification), adequate or do other definitions need to be developed? As is often said, are the French really “useless at finance” ? Is their financial behaviour, in terms of their portfolio choices, affected by it ? And last but not least, how effective are economic education programmes and is a public financial literacy policy required?

We here consider the link between individual financial profiles over time and well-being, as measured by life satisfaction. We in particular look at annual self-reported financial worsening and improvement information for over 25,000 individuals in Australian panel data from 2002 to 2017. We first find that satisfaction falls (rises) with a contemporaneous major financial worsening (improvement), with worsening having the larger influence. Second, the experience of these financial events in the past continues to be linked to current well-being. Last, only the order of financial-improvement spells relates to well-being: a given number of past years where finances deteriorated has the same association with current well-being whether the deterioration occurred in one continuous spell or was interrupted. We last show that these associations are heterogeneous over the distribution of well-being.

Fewer than half of new drugs have data on their comparative benefits and harms against existing treatment options at the time of regulatory approval in Europe and the USA. Even when active-comparator trials exist, they might not produce meaningful data to inform decisions in clinical practice and health policy. The uncertainty associated with the paucity of well designed active-comparator trials has been compounded by legal and regulatory changes in Europe and the USA that have created a complex mix of expedited programmes aimed at facilitating faster access to new drugs. Comparative evidence generation is even sparser for medical devices. Some have argued that the current process for regulatory approval needs to generate more evidence that is useful for patients, clinicians, and payers in health-care systems. We propose a set of five key principles relevant to the European Medicines Agency, European medical device regulatory agencies, US Food and Drug Administration, as well as payers, that we believe will provide the necessary incentives for pharmaceutical and device companies to generate comparative data on drugs and devices and assure timely availability of evidence that is useful for decision making. First, labelling should routinely inform patients and clinicians whether comparative data exist on new products. Second, regulators should be more selective in their use of programmes that facilitate drug and device approvals on the basis of incomplete benefit and harm data. Third, regulators should encourage the conduct of randomised trials with active comparators. Fourth, regulators should use prospectively designed network meta-analyses based on existing and future randomised trials. Last, payers should use their policy levers and negotiating power to incentivise the generation of comparative evidence on new and existing drugs and devices, for example, by explicitly considering proven added benefit in pricing and payment decisions.

The idea that competitive balance increases the utility of fans, and therefore their spending and the revenue of professional clubs, lies at the heart of sports economics in general and the economics of football in particular. This notion of competitive balance is often invoked to explain the decisions of professional leagues to change the rules of competitions or the distribution of TV rights. However, the empirical literature shows that the relationship between competitive balance and fan demand is far from obvious. In this paper, we examine the idea of competitive balance as perceived by football fans. In the case of Ligue 1, it is mainly explained by medium-and long-term uncertainty, while in the case of the Champions League it is more a matter of long-term suspense. But uncertainty over the outcome is far from being the only factor explaining the demand for football since around 30% of fans report that they would always be willing to attend or watch games even in the hypothetical case that there is no suspense left. JEL Classification: D12, L83

Can people remember correctly their past well-being? We study three national surveys of the British, German and French population, where more than 50,000 European citizens were asked questions about their current and past life satisfaction. We uncover systematic biases in recalled subjective well-being: on average, people tend to overstate the improvement in their well-being over time and to understate their past happiness. But this aggregate figure hides a deep asymmetry: while happy people recall the evolution of their life to be better than it was, unhappy ones tend to exaggerate its worsening. It thus seems that feeling happy today implies feeling better than yesterday. These results offer an explanation of why happy people are more optimistic, perceive risks to be lower and are more open to new experiences.

Job insecurity can have wide-ranging consequences outside of the labour market. We here argue that it reduces fertility amongst the employed. The 1999 rise in the French Delalande tax, paid by large private firms when they laid off workers aged over 50, produced an exogenous rise in job insecurity for younger workers in these firms. A difference-in-differences analysis of French ECHP data reveals that this greater job insecurity for these under-50s significantly reduced their probability of having a new child by 3.9 percentage points. Reduced fertility is only found at the intensive margin: job insecurity reduces family size but not the probability of parenthood itself. Our results also suggest negative selection into parenthood, as this fertility effect does not appear for low-income and less-educated workers.

This paper presents the International Panel on Social Progress and expounds key ideas from its first report, Rethinking Society for the 21st Century (Cambridge University Press, 2018). It emphasizes the importance of three dimensions of progress on which serious challenges need to be addressed: equity, freedom and sustainability. Addressing these challenges primarily requires reforming power and governance structures in the economy, society, and politics.

Health economics is driven by its applications to improve the health and well-being of individuals, people, and places. Health economists are intellectual descendants of 19th century meliorists (Bentham & Bowring, 1843) who believed that: (1) coordinated human activity could improve well-being and (2) scientific research to find causal connections between policies and human well-being is an important ingredient in ameliorative policy change.

We propose strike mechanisms as a solution to the classical problem of Hurwicz and Schmeidler [1978] and Maskin [1999] according to which, in twoperson societies, no Pareto efficient rule is Nash-implementable. A strike mechanism specifies the number of alternatives that each player vetoes. Each player simultaneously casts these vetoes and the mechanism selects randomly one alternative among the unvetoed ones. For strict preferences over alternatives and under a very weak condition for extending preferences over lotteries, these mechanisms are deterministic-in-equilibrium. They Nash implement a class of Pareto efficient social choice rules called Pareto-and-veto rules. Moreover, under mild richness conditions on the domain of preferences over lotteries, any Pareto efficient Nash-implementable rule is a Pareto-and-veto rule and hence is implementable through a strike mechanism.

Si l’idée de familiariser les individus avec les outils de l’épargne n’est pas nouvelle, c’est surtout depuis le début des années 2000 que le concept moderne de littéracie financière s’est développé chez les économistes. La littérature dans ce domaine, essentiellement empirique, s’est depuis lors considérablement enrichie. C’est aussi à cette période que l’Organisation de coopération et de développement économiques(OCDE) a d’ailleurs lancé son programme d’éducation financière pour développer la culture financière des ménages. L’objectif de cet article est de décrire les programmes de culture financière et d’éducation financière en Europe occidentale:France, Allemagne, Italie, Espagne, Suisse et Pays-Bas. Un premier constat concerne la littéracie financière:à des degrés divers, les résidents de ces pays sont loin d’avoir une forte littéracie. Un deuxième constat concerne l’hétérogénéité de la littéracie financière. Dans tous les pays, la culture financière dépend de l’âge, de l’éducation et du sexe: elle est plus élevée chez les hommes, les personnes âgées et les diplômés. Certains déterminants semblent être plus spécifiques à la culture de chaque pays: l’opinion politique en France, le passé politique en Allemagne (Ouest vs.Est), la zone linguistique en Suisse… Enfin, il apparaît que les programmes d’éducation financière existent en Europe occidentale depuis le milieu des années 2000, probablement proposés de manière plus systématique dans les pays centralisés.

Using two earned income/tax declaration experimental designs we show that only partial liars are affected by a truth-telling oath, a non-price commitment device. Under oath, we see no change in the number of chronic liars and fewer partial liars. Rather than smoothly increasing their compliance, we also observe that partial liars who respond to the oath, respond by becoming fully honest under oath. Based on both response times data and the consistency of subjects when several compliance decisions are made in a row, we show that partial lying arises as the result of weak preferences towards profitable honesty. The oath only transforms people with weak preferences for lying into being committed to the truth.

I comment on the claim by John Roemer that in games of pure coordination, Kantians drive Nashers to extinction ». Using an explicit dynamic model of evolution, I notice that in these games, Kantian optimizers do not always drive selsh optimizers to extinction.

Cet article s’intéresse aux conceptions subjectives du « bien-vieillir » chez les plus de 40 ans en France. Nous tentons de mettre au jour les facteurs explicatifs de ces conceptions, en prêtant une attention particulière au rôle du statut socio-économique. Pour cela, nous analysons des données issues d’une enquête quantitative originale menée en 2016 auprès d’environ 1730 adhérents d’une mutuelle. Dans l’ensemble, bien vieillir signifie surtout être satisfait de sa santé, de sa situation financière, de sa vie familiale et de son couple. Les conditions d’existence ont un retentissement sur les conceptions du bien-vieillir. En effet, dans les milieux plus favorisés, bien vieillir est plus souvent synonyme de bonne santé, de sociabilité et de projets, tandis que dans les milieux plus défavorisés, l’accent est davantage porté sur la satisfaction vis-à-vis du logement et de son environnement, ce qui pourrait renvoyer à des conditions d’habitat plus souvent insatisfaisantes et au « choix du nécessaire ».

This paper, following earlier work on the measurement of inequality when only ordinal information is available, proposes an axiomatic derivation of a new class of inequality‐sensitive and additive achievement measures. Use is then made of these indices to study health achievement in Europe, using information on self‐assessed health in 30 countries, based on the European Health Interview Survey (wave 2).

Le bien-être au travail ne se réduit pas à de simples facteurs individuels et psychologiques. Il tient largement à la structure des entreprises, à leur type de management et à leur climat social, qui peuvent aussi engendrer de grandes souffrances. En s’appuyant sur des recherches récentes, françaises et internationales, l’économiste Claudia Senik met au jour les sources profondes, parfois invisibles, d’un bien-être au travail dont l’impact sur la vie sociale et économique est considérable. Elle passe en revue tous les leviers dont les services de ressources humaines devraient s’emparer pour accroître l’épanouissement professionnel de leurs salariés : autonomie, perspectives de progression, valorisation symbolique des fonctions, transparence des modes de différenciation salariale, etc.

We here ask whether the U-shaped relationship between life satisfaction and age is flatter for those who are partnered. This is the case in cross-section EU-SILC data, where the drop in life satisfaction from the teens to the 50s is almost four times larger for the non-partnered than for the partnered, whose life satisfaction essentially follows a slight downward trajectory with age. However, the same analysis in three panel datasets (BHPS, SOEP and HILDA) reveals a U-shape for both marital groups, although still somewhat flatter for the partnered than for the non-partnered. We suggest that the difference between the cross-section and panel results reflects compositional effects: there is in particular a significant shift of the relatively dissatisfied out of marriage in mid-life. These composition effects will flatten the U-shape in age for the partnered in cross-section data.

Depuis l’article pionnier de Feldstein (1974), l’impact d’un système de retraite sur le niveau d’épargne fait l’objet de nombreux travaux aux résultats parfois controversés. Selon l’hypothèse standard du cycle de vie, un individu qui anticipe une perte de niveau de vie à la retraite devrait, toutes choses égales par ailleurs, épargner davantage. C’est à cette question que nous nous intéressons ici. Pour cela, nous considérons que les individus anticipent de façon plus satisfaisante leur taux de remplacement (à partir de leur profil de salaires) qu’un montant de pension au moment du départ en retraite. Nous étudions alors les effets d’une variation anticipée de ce taux de remplacement sur l’épargne financière des ménages, en tenant compte à la fois des évolutions anticipées de carrière et des réformes des retraites. Nous mobilisons la vague 2012 de l’enquête PAT€R portant sur la population française qui dispose de riches informations au niveau individuel sur les anticipations de pension. Nos estimations économétriques montrent qu’un plus faible (resp. plus élevé) taux de remplacement anticipé est relié, de façon significative, à un taux d’épargne financière plus élevé (resp. plus faible).

In 2012 the Ontario Ministry of Health introduced Quality-Based Procedures (QBPs), whereby for a selected set of medical interventions hospitals started to be reimbursed based on the price by volume formula, with the expectation that payments would be subsequently adjusted with respect to hospital performance on quality indicators. From the onset, unilateral hip and knee replacements were included in QBPs, whereas bilateral hip and knee replacements were added in 2014. In complement to QBPs, in 2012 the Health-Based Allocation Model (HBAM) was phased in allowing part of hospital funding to be tied to municipality-level patient and hospital characteristics. Using patient-level data from Canadian Discharge Abstract Database (DAD), we evaluate through a difference-in-difference approach the impact of QBPs/HBAM on the volume and quality of targeted procedures and other types of joint replacements plausibly competing for hospital resources. After controlling for patient, hospital and regional characteristics, we found a signi_cant decrease in acute length of stay associated to QBPs, as well as a marked shift towards patients being discharged home with/without post-operative supporting services. However, evidence with regards to spillover effects and quality improve ment across all joint replacement types is weak. Results are robust to various model specifications, and different estimation techniques, including matching methods and synthetic control groups.

In this article, we lay out the basic case for wellbeing as the goal of government. We briefly review the history of this idea, which goes back to the ancient Greeks and was the acknowledged ideal of the Enlightenment. We then discuss possible measures on which a wellbeing orientation could be based, emphasising the importance of acknowledging the political agency of citizens and thus their own evaluations of their life. We then turn to practicalities and consequences: how would one actually set up wellbeing-oriented decision-making and what difference should we expect from current practice? We end by discussing the current barriers to the adoption of wellbeing as the goal of government, both in terms of what we need to know more about and where the ideological barriers lay.

Using the 41-year division of Germany as a natural experiment, we show that the German Democratic Republic’s gender-equal institutions created a culture that has undone the male breadwinner norm and its consequences. Since reunification, East Germany still differs from West Germany not only because of its higher female contribution to household income, but also because East German women can earn more than their husbands without having to increase their number of housework hours, put their marriage at risk or withdraw from the labour market. By contrast, the norm of higher male income, and its consequences, are still prevalent in West Germany.

This article explores subjective perceptions of retirement in France, using original quantitative data on the customers of a not-for-profit insurance company. The sample contains individuals aged 4084, who are either in the labour force (N=923) or retired (N=705). Perceptions of retirement are measured using closed questions on views of the retirement transition (these views can be positive, negative, or neutral) and definitions of retirement (retirement can be interpreted as a period of freedom, boredom, greater risk of precariousness, etc.). Using a number of different social indicators, we examine whether differences in social conditions translate into heterogeneous perceptions. We also investigate whether social differences in perceptions fade away with increasing age. Both working-age individuals and retirees generally have a positive view of the retirement transition and often define retirement as a period of freedom. Perceptions of retirement are shaped by social conditions: a higher level of education and income, greater wealth, better health, and stronger social involvement go hand in hand with rosier perceptions. Moreover, we uncover a strengthening of this social gradient with increasing age. Finally, perceptions are positively correlated with satisfaction in various domains, for retirees.

The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has led to widespread school shutdowns, and many schools have opted for education using online learning platforms. Using administrative data from three middle schools in China, this paper estimates the causal effects of online learning on student performance. Using the difference-in-differences approach, we show that online education improves students’ academic achievement by 0.22 of a standard deviation, relative to those who stopped receiving learning support from their school during the COVID-19 lockdown. All else equal, students from a school having access to recorded online lessons delivered by external higher-quality teachers have achieved more progress in academic outcomes than those accessing lessons recorded by teachers in their own school. We find no evidence that the educational benefits of distance learning differ for rural and urban students. However, there is more progress in the academic achievement of students using a computer for online education than that of those using a smartphone. Last, low achievers benefit the most from online learning while there is no significant impact for top students. Our findings have important policy implications for educational practices when lockdown measures are implemented during a pandemic.

Les citoyens membres de la Convention Citoyenne pour le Climat (CCC) sont-ils représentatifs des Français ? Ces derniers approuvent-ils les politiques climatiques proposées par la Convention ? Cette note aborde ces questions en comparant les points de vue des citoyens de la Convention avec ceux d’échantillons représentatifs de la population générale interrogés avant que les mesures proposées par la CCC soient diffusées publiquement.

From Thomas Malthus and Pierre Verhulst to Alfred Lotka and Vito Volterra, theoretical biology has studied the dynamics of living species (see Berryman 1992 for an account of this history). The interaction between theoretical biology and game theory (Smith 1982) has also been fruitful, and—as a result of this interaction—a whole discipline of evolutionary game theory has emerged (Weibull 1995).

Job insecurity is one type of risk that workers face on the labour market. As with any risk, individuals can choose to insure against it. We consider marriage as potential insurance against labour-market risk. The 1999 rise in the French Delalande layoff tax for older workers produced an exogenous rise in job insecurity for younger workers. A difference-in-differences estimation in panel data reveals that this greater job insecurity for the under-50s led to a significant rise in their probability of marriage, and especially with partners who had greater job security, consistent with marriage providing insurance on the labour market.

Every day, policy makers must decide whether a policy is desirable. They do so by examining its impact on a range of outcomes. But the problem is how to aggregate these disparate outcomes. For example, as covid-19 cases rise again, some lockdown measures are gradually being reintroduced across the UK. These policy choices will lead to outcomes that are good (such as fewer deaths from covid-19, less commuting, better air quality) and some that are bad (unemployment, income losses, loneliness, domestic abuse). How can policy makers aggregate these disparate effects in order to arrive at an overall assessment? To do so requires a “common currency” with which to measure all the effects. The currency we propose is the change in years of human wellbeing resulting from the policy.

Rien dans les 17 règles « conservées » par l’IFAB (International Football Association Board) depuis 1886 ne dit que les femmes ne peuvent pas jouer au football. Certaines sources documentent très tôt le premier match de football féminin, en 1881 à Édimbourg entre une sélection anglaise et une sélection écossaise. Pourtant l’histoire des femmes et du football est loin d’avoir été un long fleuve tranquille : s’il a eu ses heures de gloire après la Première Guerre mondiale, le football féminin est retombé dans l’anonymat jusqu’au milieu des années 1960 avant de redevenir aujourd’hui l’objet de beaucoup d’intérêts, non seulement sportifs, mais aussi politiques et économiques. Au-delà de son succès populaire dans les stades et à la télévision, la dernière Coupe du monde en France en 2019 a peut-être été un tournant dans l’histoire du football féminin. Pour l’instant, comparé à son homologue masculin, ce football demeure une toute petite « affaire » et il est sans doute trop tôt pour évaluer l’héritage économique de ce tournoi mondial. Cette étude vise à fournir des outils d’analyse et des données statistiques permettant de mieux comprendre l’écosystème du football féminin actuel et notamment d’éclairer la question du niveau de rémunération des footballeuses qui a fait polémique dans les médias. – – – – – – – – –

A growing literature has concluded that terrorism affects the economy, yet less is known about its impact on individual welfare. This article estimates the impact of the 2013 Boston marathon bombing on well-being, exploiting representative daily data from the American Time Use Survey and Well-Being Supplement. Using a combined regression discontinuity and differences-in-differences design, with the 2012 Boston marathon as a counterfactual, we find an immediate reduction in well-being of a third of a standard deviation. In particular, happiness declined sharply and negative emotions rose significantly. While the effects do not persist beyond one week, they may entail adverse health and economic consequences.

Climate change threatens irreversible and dangerous impacts, possibly leading to extinction. The most relevant trade-off then may not be between present and future consumption but between present consumption and the mere existence of future generations. To investigate this trade-off, we build an integrated assessment model that explicitly accounts for the risk of extinction of future generations. Using the class of number-dampened utilitarian social welfare functions, we compare different climate policies that change the probability of catastrophic outcomes yielding an early extinction. We analyse the role of inequality aversion and population ethics. Low inequality aversion and a preference for large populations favour the most ambitious climate policy, although there are cases where the effect of inequality aversion on the preferred policy is reversed. This is due to the fact that a higher inequality aversion both decreases the welfare loss of reducing consumption of the current generation and also decreases the welfare gain of reducing the future risk of extinction.

En France, l’organisation des régimes de retraite pourrait être considérablement transformée avec la mise en place progressive d’un système universel de retraite par points, sans modification de l’actuel financement par répartition, à compter de l’année 2022. Cette réforme systémique, qui a déjà obtenu une première validation par l’Assemblée nationale le 5 mars 2020 après que le gouvernement ait eu recours à l’article 49.3, a été suspendue dans la foulée par le Président Macron le 16 mars 2020 en raison de la crise de la Covid-19. En conséquence, le devenir de cette réforme centrale du quinquennat est incertain. Quoi qu’il en soit, cette dernière a replacé la question des retraites au cœur du débat public. [Premier paragraphe]

The COVID-19 outbreak has generated significant uncertainty about the future, especially for young adults. Health and economic threats, as well as more diffuse concerns about the consequences of COVID-19, can trigger feelings of anxiety, leading individuals to adopt uncertainty-reducing behaviours. We tested whether anxiety was associated with an increase in willingness to be exposed to the risk of COVID-19 infection (WiRE) using an online survey administered to 3,110 French individuals aged between 18 and 35 years old during the lockdown period (April 2020). Overall, 56.5% of the sample declared a positive WiRE. Unemployment was associated with a higher WiRE (+8.2 percentage points (pp); 95% CI +0.9-15.4 pp). One standard deviation increases in income (+1160€) and psychological state anxiety raised the WiRE by +2.7 pp (95% CI: +1.1-4.4 pp) and +3.9 pp (95% CI: +1.6-6.2 pp), respectively. A one standard deviation increase in perceived hospitalisation risk was associated with a -4.1 pp (95% CI: -6.2-2.1 pp) decrease in the WiRE. Overall, our results suggest that both the prospect of economic losses and psychological anxiety can undermine young adults’adherence to physical distancing recommendations. Public policies targeting young adults must consider both their economic situation and their mental health, and they must use uncertaintyreducing communication strategies.

Trois caractéristiques sont classiquement requises pour garantir la légitimité démocratique des dispositifs de participation politique : la représentativité descriptive ou démographique des publics assemblés (input legitimacy), leur caractère inclusif et la qualité de leur délibération (throughput legitimacy) et la portée des résultats (output legitimacy). Pour la Convention citoyenne pour le climat (CCC), « 150 » citoyennes et citoyens ont été tiré·es au sort, afin de constituer une « France en miniature », le plus possible représentative de la diversité de la population d’au moins 16 ans résidant sur le sol national. Ce volume A des Données brutes d’observation de la Convention citoyenne pour le climat examine la représentativité descriptive de la CCC en présentant les tableaux récapitulant la répartition des citoyen·nes tiré·es au sort puis présent·es lors des sessions selon les différents caractéristiques sociodémographiques retenues pour leur sélection.

Les chercheuses et chercheurs, d’un côté, et les animatrices et animateurs, d’un autre, ont demandé aux participant·es de la Convention citoyenne pour le climat (CCC) de remplir des questionnaires distribués lors des week-ends et auto-administrés. Lors des premières sessions de la CCC, un questionnaire de l’équipe d’animation et un questionnaire du collectif de recherche ont été proposés au démarrage de la session dans l’hémicycle du Conseil économique, social et environnemental (CESE) (questionnaires d’entrée) et en fin de session (questionnaires de sortie), alors que lors des dernières sessions, un seul questionnaire du collectif de recherche et un seul questionnaire de l’équipe d’animation (aucun en sessions 5 et 8) ont été proposés en sortie, avant la clôture de la session. Nous présentons dans ce volume l’ensemble des réponses aux questionnaires du collectif de recherche passés à chacune des sessions (les réponses aux questionnaires de l’équipe d’animation ne sont pas reproduites). Le volume assemble huit livrets, un par session.

Le tirage au sort des participant·es à des « processus délibératifs représentatifs » sélectionne in fine des volontaires (voir le volume A : halshs-03910234v2). Aussi, pour s’assurer de la représentativité du mini-public, est-il indispensable de mesurer les biais de sélection que le recrutement introduit en mobilisant différentiellement certaines motivations à participer et en faisant dépendre l’acceptation de la disponibilité pour le faire. Quand bien même la structure sociodémographique du mini-public constitué est proche de celle de la population générale – ce qui est le cas pour la Convention citoyenne pour le climat (CCC) –, le recrutement peut avoir sélectionné des citoyen·nes présentant des profils de préférences assez différents de la population. Ce volume examine cet aspect de la représentativité descriptive de la CCC en comparant les réponses des citoyens à leur entrée dans la Convention à des questions posées dans des enquêtes nationales sur certaines variables d’opinion politique générale et sur le climat.

Dans cet article, nous analysons les séances de tirs au but lors des matchs de football dans trois compétitions : la Coupe de France, la Coupe de la Ligue et le Trophée des Champions. Nous nous intéressons aux effets psychologiques auxquels le joueur est soumis lors de ces séances : la « peur » de gagner, la « peur » de perdre et la « peur » de rattraper son adversaire. Notre principale conclusion est que la performance est affectée négativement à la fois par l’enjeu et par la difficulté de la situation mais nous ne trouvons aucun avantage à commencer (tirer en premier) la séance de tirs au but.

The paper studies sequences of penalty kicks during football shout-outs in French cup competitions. We seek to analyze in detail the psychological effects to which the kicker responds: fear of winning, fear of losing, expected outcomes or how much is at stake. The main conclusion of our study is that the performance (the probability of scoring) is impacted negatively by both what is at stake (the impact of my scoring on the expected probability that my team eventually wins) and by the difficulty of the situation (the ex ante probability of my team eventually losing). We find no advantage for a team to take the first kick.

The success of Thomas Piketty’s 2013 book, Capital in the 21st Century, has put the theme of inequality at the heart of economic policy debates. In addition, the financial crisis of 2008 has changed the behavior of savers, who now favor prudence in their portfolio. Spatio-temporal comparisons of the distribution of wealth and its composition therefore appear essential for analyzing these public policy issues.The European Household Finance and Consumption Survey collects information on household wealth, revenue and consumption habits. Those data enable a better understanding of savings and indebtedness behaviors, as well as an evaluation of financial weaknesses and monetary policy effects.The 2014-2015 wave shows that the concentration of financial assets is higher than that of real estate. Risky and long-term savings are essentially held by wealthy households, but stockholdings remain low.On average, French households claim to have 268,000 euros of assets gross. Half are indebted, on average up to 37,000 euros. The decile of the richest French holds about 46% of the total wealth, the richest percentile, about 15%. Increasing indebtedness essentially concerns wealthy people. Hence, the household situation does not reveal any major risk on financial stability in France.

This paper is a survey of what we learned from experiments about how innovations in the field of voting are received. Different experimental methods have been used: in the laboratory, on line and in situ. Preferences for voting rules are driven by self-interest, by a quest for simplicity and are also correlated with political attitudes. For most rules, voters show no cognitive barriers to their use, but for more complex rules, serious misunderstanding can appear.

The objective of this paper is to evaluate the short- and medium-term impact of road accidents on the career paths of French electricity board employees (EDF-GDF), with special emphasis on those coming to the end of their professional careers, based on the Gazel cohort for the period 2002–2014. This study analyzes the adaptation strategies developed by firms and victims following such an exogenous shock. It sheds light on the ability of stakeholders to adjust, in a context marked by a political desire to reform retirement, in particular for special arrangements such as those of EDF-GDF. The Gazel database makes it possible to characterize the different types of road accidents in order to analyze their impacts on the changes in the careers paths of professionals coming to the end of their careers. The econometric strategy is based on the difference-in-differences method with propensity score matching. In total, 4,066 people were victims of road accidents during the study period. On average, victims were older, from lower socioeconomic groups, and were more likely to be male. The analysis shows that victims who suffer serious physical or material consequences exit the labor market earlier, likely due to a reclassification mechanism that offers the right to early retirement. Victims of road accidents whose health is not impacted face fewer changes to their career paths.

This collection of essays represents responses by over eighty scholars to an unusual request: give your high level assessment of the field of economic design, as broadly construed. Where do we come from? Where do we go from here? The book editors invited short, informal reflections expressing deeply felt but hard to demonstrate opinions, unsupported speculation, and controversial views of a kind one might not normally risk submitting for review. The contributors – both senior

Dans cet article, nous étudions les facteurs individuels expliquant la détention d’actions sous ses différentes formes, et leurs évolutions suite à la crise financière. Il existe trois principaux modes d’investissement dans les actions : acheter des titres en direct ; les acheter par l’intermédiaire de fonds communs de placement ; et enfin souscrire une assurance-vie liée à des fonds (contrats en unité de compte). Ces trois canaux n’impliquent pas les mêmes comportements. En effet, outre les caractéristiques de risque et de rendement, ils diffèrent par leurs coûts de transaction, leurs frais de gestion et leur fiscalité. En conséquence, il n’y a pas de raison a priori de considérer que les décisions de choix de portefeuille des ménages sur ces différents supports sont équivalentes et correspondent aux mêmes caractéristiques des individus. Les données suggèrent que la baisse régulière du taux d’actionnaires observée en France pendant la crise concerne aussi bien la détention directe qu’indirecte d’actions. Seule échappe à cette baisse la détention des contrats d’assurance-vie. Leur diffusion, croissante entre 2004 et 2014, ne peut cependant expliquer la moindre détention des autres produits-actions (pas d’effet de substitution). Les estimations économétriques permettent d’affiner l’analyse et d’identifier les caractéristiques spécifiques des actionnaires en fonction du support choisi : ceux qui investissent directement dans des actions sont plus riches, plus éduqués et relativement moins averses au risque ; ceux qui détiennent des fonds communs de placement sont un peu plus riches mais aussi plus averses au risque que les actionnaires en direct et ne sont pas plus éduqués ; enfin, pour les investissements en actions sur des contrats d’assurance-vie, la position dans le cycle de vie et la catégorie sociale jouent un rôle important, de même qu’une aversion au risque modérée et une préférence faible pour le présent. Les épargnants qui investissent dans des contrats d’assurance-vie le font davantage par prévoyance (financement de leur retraite par exemple) et ne recherchent pas forcément un rendement à court terme de leurs placements. L’information joue aussi un rôle prépondérant : la détention d’actions par les parents influence les décisions d’investissement des enfants. Enfin, une décomposition économétrique (Oaxaca-Blinder) permet de séparer les effets dus à l’évolution des caractéristiques de la population des effets dus aux changements des comportements sur la diminution du nombre d’actionnaires. Le fait que plus des deux tiers de l’effet global ne puisse pas être expliqué par les changements socio-démographiques met en évidence le fort impact de la crise sur les investissements en actions des ménages.

In the last several decades obesity rates have risen significantly. In 2014, 10.8% and 14.9% of the world’s men and women, respectively, were obese as compared with 3.2% and 6.4% in 1975. The obesity “epidemic” has spread from high-income countries to emerging and developing ones in every region of the world. The rising obesity rates are essentially explained by a rise in total calorie intake associated with long-term global changes in the food supply. Food has become more abundant, available, and cheaper, but food affluence is associated with profound changes in the nutritional quality of supply. While calories have become richer in fats, sugar, and sodium, they are now lower in fiber. The nutrition transition from starvation to abundance and high-fat/sugar/salt food is thus accompanied by an epidemiological transition from infectious diseases and premature death to chronic diseases and longer lives. Food-related chronic diseases have important economic consequences in terms of human capital and medical care costs borne by public and private insurances and health systems. Technological innovations, trade globalization, and retailing expansion are associated with these substantial changes in the quantity and quality of food supply and diet in developed as well as in emerging and rapidly growing economies. Food variety has significantly increased due to innovations in the food production process. Raw food is broken down to obtain elementary substances that are subsequently assembled for producing final food products. This new approach, as well as improvements in cold chain and packaging, has contributed to a globalization of food chains and spurred an increase of trade in food products, which, jointly with foreign direct investments, alters the domestic food supply. Finally, technological advancements have also favored the emergence of large supermarkets and retailers, which have transformed the industrial organization of consumer markets. How do these developments affect population diets and diet-related diseases? Identifying the contribution of supply factors to long-term changes in diet and obesity is important because it can help to design innovative, effective, and evidence-based policies, such as regulations on trade, retailing, and quality or incentives for product reformulation. Yet this requires a correct evaluation of the importance and causal effects of supply-side factors on the obesity pandemic. Among others, the economic literature analyzes the effect of changes in food prices, food availability, trade, and marketing on the nutrition and epidemiological transitions. There is a lack of causal robust evidence on their long-term effects. The empirical identification of causal effects is de facto challenging because the dynamics of food supply is partly driven by demand-side factors and dynamics, like a growing female labor force, habit formation, and the social dynamics of preferences. There are several important limitations to the literature from the early 21st century. Existing studies cover mostly well-developed countries, use static economic and econometric specifications, and employ data that cover short periods of time unmarked by profound shifts in food supply. In contrast, empirical research on the long-term dynamics of consumer behavior is much more limited, and comparative studies across diverse cultural and institutional backgrounds are almost nonexistent. Studies on consumers in emerging countries could exploit the rapid time changes and large spatial heterogeneity, both to identify the causal impacts of shocks on supply factors and to document how local culture and institutions shape diet and nutritional outcomes.

Is retirement good for your health? This article explores the impact of retirement on unexpected health evolutions. Using data from the annual Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia survey (2001-2014), we construct measures of the mismatch between each person’s expected and actual health evolution (hereafter, “health shocks”). We find that after retirement, the probability of negative shocks decreases and the likelihood of positive health shocks increases, for both genders. These shocks translate into variations of life satisfaction in the same direction (i.e. unexpected positive health shocks increase life satisfaction). Other indicators of mental and physical health taken from the SF-36 vary in the same way, i.e. improve unexpectedly after retirement. By definition, health shocks are immune to the problem of reverse causality that could run from health to retirement. Hence, our findings are consistent with a positive impact of retirement on health.

People now spend less time doing housework in general, and cooking in particular. So is cooking still a central feature of our daily eating practices? This article compares trends in household cooking durations in France and the USA in the period 1985–2010 using time-use surveys and practice theory. We ask how the association between cooking and eating at home has changed over time, and how it has contributed to the decline in the time spent on household cooking. Descriptive statistics show that US households spent 20 minutes less time per day cooking in 2010 than in 1985 (15 minutes less time per day in France). Linear regressions indicate that the association between cooking duration and the number of eating events at home has declined in the USA but not in France. The Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method points to this fact as the primary reason for the change in cooking time in the USA; in France, decreased cooking time is accounted for primarily by changes in population characteristics. French and American food practices have followed gradually diverging trajectories, with cooking less a feature of eating practices – even at home – in the USA, whereas the association between eating and preparing food at home remains stable in France.

The statistical analysis of cross-section data very often reveals a U-shaped relationship between subjective well-being and age. This paper uses 18 waves of British panel data to try to distinguish between two potential explanations of this shape: a pure life-cycle or aging effect, and a fixed cohort effect depending on year of birth. Panel analysis controlling for fixed effects continues to produce a U-shaped relationship between well-being and age, although this U-shape is flatter for life satisfaction than for the GHQ measure of mental well-being. The pattern of the estimated cohort effects also differs between the two well-being measures and, to an extent, by demographic group. In particular, those born earlier report more positive GHQ scores, controlling for their current age; this phenomenon is especially prevalent for women.

Dans cet article les auteurs étudient l’impact d’un « choc de santé », c’est-à-dire la survenue brutale d’un accident ayant entraîné un recours aux soins sur la consommation hebdomadaire de tabac, d’alcool ainsi que sur l’Indice de masse corporel (IMC). En utilisant un modèle à effets fixes et des données de panel provenant de la cohorte Gazel, les résultats montrent que le choc de santé a un impact significatif sur ces comportements de santé. Plus précisément, il induit une baisse significative et durable de la consommation de tabac et d’alcool pendant, respectivement, 5 ans et 3 ans, mais n’influence pas l’IMC. Ces résultats sont à mettre en exergue avec ceux des tentatives d’arrêt ou de diminution de la consommation de tabac qui durent, en moyenne, 2,4 mois. Ce qui est 25 fois moins long que la diminution effective suite à un choc de santé. Ainsi, les résultats montrent que subir un choc de santé est un déterminant majeur de la durée de réduction de la consommation de tabac.

We here consider the relationship between the individual time profile of crime victimisation and sleep quality. Sleep quality worsens with contemporaneous crime victimisation, with physical violence having a larger effect than property crime. But crime history also matters, and past victimisation experience continues to reduce current sleep quality. Last, there is some evidence that the order of victimisation spells plays a role: consecutive years of crime victimisation affect sleep quality more adversely than the same number of years when not contiguous.

Le mouvement des Gilets jaunes a introduit dans le débat public de nombreuses interrogations sur les inégalités territoriales. La présente Note vise à analyser les déterminants locaux du mécontentement d’une partie de la population. Nous étudions cinq caractéristiques des conditions de vie locale : l’emploi, la fiscalité locale, les équipements privés et publics, l’immobilier et le lien associatif. Nous mesurons l’évolution de ces dimensions au sein de chaque commune au cours des dernières années et analysons leur pouvoir prédictif sur trois symptômes du mal-être : la mobilisation des Gilets jaunes, la variation du taux d’abstention lors des élections présidentielles, ainsi que le mal-être déclaré par les citoyens.

We build models to estimate well-being in the United States based on changes in the volume of internet searches for different words, obtained from the Google Trends website. The estimated well-being series are weighted combinations of word groups that are endogenously identified to fit the weekly subjective well-being measures collected by Gallup Analytics for the United States or the biannual measures for the 50 states. Our approach combines theoretical underpinnings and statistical analysis, and the model we construct successfully estimates the out-of-sample evolution of most subjective well-being measures at a one-year horizon. Our analysis suggests that internet search data can be a complement to traditional survey data to measure and analyze the well-being of a population at high frequency and local geographic levels. We highlight some factors that are important for well-being, as we find that internet searches associated with job search, civic participation, and healthy habits consistently predict well-being across several models, datasets and use cases during the period studied.

We analyze the role of ethical values in the determination of the social cost of carbon, arguing that the familiar debate about discounting is too narrow. Other ethical issues are equally important to computing the social cost of carbon, and we highlight inequality, risk, and population ethics. Although the usual approach, in the economics of cost-benefit analysis for climate policy, is confined to a utilitarian axiology, the methodology of the social cost of carbon is rather flexible and can be expanded to a broader set of social-welfare approaches.

The rise in obesity and other food-related chronic diseases has prompted public-health officials of local communities, national governments, and international institutions to pay attention to the regulation of food supply and consumer behavior. A wide range of policy interventions has been proposed and tested since the early 21st century in various countries. The most prominent are food taxation, health education, nutritional labeling, behavioral interventions at point-of-decision, advertising, and regulations of food quality and trade. While the standard neoclassical approach to consumer rationality provides limited arguments in favor of public regulations, the recent development of behavioral economics research extends the scope of regulation to many marketing practices of the food industry. In addition, behavioral economics provides arguments in favor of taxation, easy-to-use front-of-pack labels, and the use of nudges for altering consumer choices. A selective but careful review of the empirical literature on taxation, labeling, and nudges suggests that a policy mixing these tools may produce some health benefits. More specifically, soft-drink taxation, front-of-pack labeling policies, regulations of marketing practices, and eating nudges based on affect or behavior manipulations are often effective methods for reducing unhealthy eating. The economic research faces important challenges. First, the lack of a proper control group and exogenous sources of variations in policy variables make evaluation very difficult. Identification is challenging as well, with data covering short time periods over which markets are observed around slowly moving equilibrium. In addition, truly exogenous supply or demand shocks are rare events. Second, structural models of consumer choices cannot provide accurate assessment of the welfare benefits of public policies because they consider perfectly rational agents and often ignore the dynamic aspects of food decisions, especially consumer concerns over health. Being able to obtain better welfare evaluation of policies is a priority. Third, there is a lack of research on the food industry response to public policies. Some studies implement empirical industrial organization models to infer the industry strategic reactions from market data. A fruitful avenue is to extend this approach to analyze other key dimensions of industrial strategies, especially decisions regarding the nutritional quality of food. Finally, the implementation of nutritional policies yields systemic consequences that may be underestimated. They give rise to conflicts between public health and trade objectives and alter the business models of the food sector. This may greatly limit the external validity of ex-ante empirical approaches. Future works may benefit from household-, firm-, and product-level data collected in rapidly developing economies where food markets are characterized by rapid transitions, the supply is often more volatile, and exogenous shocks occur more frequently.

Oath-taking for senior executives has been promoted as a mean to enhance honesty within and towards organizations. Herein we explore whether people who voluntarily sign a solemn truth-telling oath are more committed to sincere behavior when offered the chance to lie. We design an experiment to test how the oath affects truth-telling in two contexts: a neutral context replicating the typical experiment in the literature, and a « loaded » context in which we remind subjects that « a lie is a lie. » We consider four payoff configurations, with differential monetary incentives to lie, implemented as within-subjects treatment variables. The results are reinforced by robustness investigations in which each subject made only one lying decision. Our results show that the oath reduces lying, especially in the loaded environment-falsehoods are reduced by fifty percent. The oath, however, have a weaker effect on lying in the neutral environment. The oath did affect decision times in all instances: the average person takes significantly more time deciding whether to lie under oath.

The question of social discounting is central in intertemporal cost–benefit analysis that often shapes economists’ recommendations regarding climate policy. The practice of discounting has been the object of heated debates among economists and philosophers, revolving around the issue of intergenerational ethics. In this chapter, the authors review the different arguments for and against specific values of social discounting. The authors show that there are actually two different ethical issues at stake: (1) the question of impartiality (or equal treatment of all generations) and (2) the question of priority to the worse off (aversion to inequality in resources, capabilities, or welfare). These questions have emerged in the utilitarian approach and can be neatly separated in that case. They also have very different consequences for climate policy. The authors then argue that the question of social discounting is not confined to the utilitarian framework as it more generally describes the social value of income (or capability or welfare) transfers to future generations. Lastly, the authors discuss the many limitations of social discounting as a tool for policy analysis.

We use the 2015–16 waves of the UK Household Longitudinal Study (Understanding Society) to look at subjective wellbeing around the time of the June 2016 EU membership Referendum in the UK (Brexit). We employ measures of both evaluative and affective wellbeing, namely life satisfaction and mental distress, respectively. We find that those reporting lower life satisfaction in 2015 were more likely to express a preference for leaving the EU in 2016, while mental distress was less predictive of pro‐Brexit attitudes. Post‐Referendum, those with Leave preferences enjoyed an increase in life satisfaction but there was no change in average life satisfaction in the overall sample. In contrast, the average level of mental distress increased in the sample post‐ Referendum, with no significant difference between those preferring to remain in or to leave the EU. We test the robustness of our results by considering a number of potential caveats, such as sample selection, unobserved individual fixed effects and the interval between interviews. Overall, our results suggest that levels of subjective wellbeing may be both a cause and a result of the 2016 Brexit vote.

The paper analyses sequences of penalty kicks during football shoot-outs in French cup competitions. We consider in detail the psychological effects to which the kicker is subject: the fear of winning, the fear of losing, the expected outcomes and how much is at stake. Our main conclusion is that the performance (the probability of scoring) is negatively affected by both what is at stake (the impact of my scoring on the expected probability that my team will eventually win) and the difficulty of the situation (the ex ante probability of my team eventually losing). We find no advantage for the team that takes the first kick.

Concepts and results from the psychological research on identity may provide better under-standing of the formation and dynamics of economic preferences. In this perspective, we propose a French translation of the Aspect of Identity (AIQ-IV) psychometric questionnaire, which measures the orientation of subjective identity along personal, relational, public, and collective dimensions (Cheek and Briggs 1982, 2013). The psychometric validation study checks the internal consistency, as well as the four-dimensional factorial structure, of the questionnaire in a representative sample of French young adults (N=1,118). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of item responses reveal a four-factor structure that corresponds to the personal, relational, public, and collective aspects of identity. Individual responses are found to be stable over time. In addition, while being moderately correlated with related psychological constructs (Self-esteem, Social Self-esteem, Self- consciousness), dimensions of the AIQ also predicts risk, time, and social preferences as measured by Likert scales and hypothetical choices.

Background Impulsivity is a psychological trait linked to health issues such as obesity. However, few studies have explored the relation between impulsivity, dietary intake, and eating disorders (EDs) in a general population. Objective The aim of this cross-sectional study was to assess whether impulsivity was associated with energy intake, food-group consumption, snacking, and risk of EDs. Design In 2014, 51,368 adult participants from the NutriNet-Santé Study completed the 11th version of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11), which assesses impulsivity. Food-group consumption and diet quality were evaluated by using ≥3 self-reported 24-h dietary records (n = 35,830), whereas snacking behavior was evaluated by an ad hoc question (n = 48,562). Risk of EDs was assessed with the Sick-Control-One-Fat-Food Questionnaire (SCOFF), and categories of ED (restrictive, bulimic, hyperphagic, and other types of EDs) were determined with the Expali algorithm (n = 48,824). Logistic and linear regressions were used to analyze the associations between impulsivity and energy intake, food-group consumption, diet quality, snacking, and risk of EDs, taking into account sociodemographic and lifestyle factors. Results Positive associations were found between impulsivity and consumption of alcoholic beverages and appetizers, whereas negative associations were found for fruit and vegetables, meat and poultry, processed meat, dairy products, milk-based desserts, and starchy foods. Impulsivity was positively associated with energy intake and negatively associated with diet quality. Impulsivity was also positively associated with snacking (OR: 3.32; 95% CI: 2.99, 3.68) and risk of EDs (OR: 3.02; 95% CI: 2.74, 3.33). The strongest associations were found for bulimic disorders (OR: 4.38; 95% CI: 3.66, 5.23) and hyperphagic disorders (OR: 2.91; 95% CI: 2.56, 3.31). Conclusion Impulsivity was associated with food intakes, snacking, and risk of EDs and could be taken into account in the promotion of healthy eating behavior. This study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03335644.

This paper studies the heterogeneity of the marginal propensity to consume out of wealth based on French household surveys. This heterogeneity is driven by differences in both wealth composition and wealth levels. We find a decreasing marginal propensity to consume out of wealth across the wealth distribution for all net wealth components. The marginal propensity to consume out of financial assets tends to be higher compared with the effect of housing assets, except at the top of the wealth distribution. The marginal propensity to consume out of housing wealth increases with debt pressure and depends on debt composition.

Le « jugement majoritaire » est un mode de scrutin par évaluation qui choisit un candidat ayant la meilleure évaluation médiane. L’article est consacré à la question : que fait-on quand on choisit suivant la meilleure médiane ? Ce principe revient à déterminer quelle demi-population négliger pour satisfaire au mieux, dans le sens d’un compromis rawlsien, l’autre moitié. Il apparaît en contradiction avec la définition de la démocratie comme participation de tous, et non de la moitié de la population plus un. De plus, satisfaire au mieux la demi-population la plus facile à satisfaire n’est pas ce que produisent les règles de choix « majoritaires », respectant le principe de Condorcet. Ces règles tendent au contraire à promouvoir les solutions consensuelles, tout particulièrement dans les environnements politiques. Cela explique les résultats surprenants produits par le jugement majoritaire.

Social scientists have provided empirical evidence that « gender trumps money », meaning that gender norms can be more powerful than economic rationality in shaping daily arrangements between spouses. In particular, when they deviate from the « male breadwinner » norm, women react by « doing gender », i.e. overplaying their feminine role by increasing the number of housework hours that they accomplish. The risk of divorce also increases when a woman earns more than her husband. This paper shows that, however powerful, these norms are cultural and can be trumped by institutions. We use the 41-year division of Germany as a natural experiment and look at differences between East and West Lander in terms of gender behavior after the German reunification. As most countries of the socialist bloc, the former GDR had designed institutions that were much more gender equalizing than their counterpart in the former FRG. We show that these institutions have created a culture that keeps inuencing behavior up to the current period. In particular, East Germany differs from West Germany in the sense that a woman can earn more than her husband without « doing gender » and without putting her marriage at risk.

Market heterogeneity may affect the distributional incidence of soft-drink taxes if households sort by income across markets with different characteristics. We use the Kantar Worldpanel homescan data to analyse the distributional incidence of the 2012 French soda tax on Exact Price Indices (EPIs) that measure consumer welfare from the price, availability and consumption of Sugar-Sweetened Beverages (SSBs) at a local market level. After correcting prices for consumer heterogeneity in preferences, we find that the soda tax had a significant but small national average impact corres- ponding to a pass-through of approximately 40%. Producers and retailers set significantly higher pass-throughs in low-income, less-competitive and smaller markets and for cheaper but less popular brands. Market heterogeneity ultimately has substantial distributional effects, as it accounts for approximately 35% of the difference in welfare variation between low- and high-income consumers.

Concepts and results from the psychological research on identity may providebetterunder- standing of the formation and dynamics of economic preferences.In this perspective,weproposea French translation ofthe Aspectof Identity (AIQ-IV) psychometric questionnaire, which measures the orientation of subjective identity along personal, relational, public, and collective dimensions (Cheek and Briggs 1982; Cheekand Briggs 2013). The psychometric validation study checks the internal consistency,as well as the four-dimensional factorial structure, of the questionnaire in a representative sample of French young adults (N=1,118). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of item responses reveala four-factor structure that corresponds to the personal, relational, public, and collective aspects of identity. Individual responses are found to be stable overtime. In addition,whilebeingcorrelatedwithsimilar psychological constructs (Self-esteem, Social Self- esteem, Self-consciousness), dimensions of the AIQ also predicts risk, time, and social preferences as measured by Likert scales and hypothetica lchoices.

La démocratie n’est plus une évidence. Ses dysfonctionnements remettent en cause son principe (le pouvoir du peuple) ou l’idée dérivée de représentation.Or, il est possible d’améliorer la démocratie représentative sur au moins un point : la technique électorale. Il existe des manières différentes de voter, qui portent des symboliques différentes et ont des conséquences différentes. Demande-t-on à l’électeur derrière quel candidat il se range, ou bien lui demande-t-on son avis sur chacun ? Encourage-t-on le regroupement ou l’émiettement des partis ?Ce livre offre une synthèse des connaissances à propos des votes « par évaluation », quand chaque électeur s’exprime sur chaque candidat. Il repose sur la réflexion théorique et sur de nombreuses expériences réalisées en collaboration avec le public, dans les bureaux de vote, en ligne ou en laboratoire. Certaines méthodes envisagées sont plus satisfaisantes que les systèmes actuels, et tendraient sans doute à favoriser les candidats consensuels.En s’interrogeant sur l’art difficile de la décision collective et sur ce que pourrait être notre démocratie, l’ouvrage porte un éclairage original sur ce qu’elle est actuellement, sur ses petits défauts comme sur ses failles plus profondes.

This paper investigates the importance of ethnic homophily in the hiring discrimination process. Our evidence comes from a correspondence test performed in France in which we use three different kinds of ethnic identification: French sounding names, North African sounding names, and « foreign » sounding names with no clear ethnic association. Within the groups of men and women, we show that all non-French applicants are equally discriminated against when compared to French applicants. Moreover, we find direct evidence of ethnic homophily: recruiters with European names are more likely to call back French named applicants. These results show the importance of favoritism for in-group members. To test for the effect of information about applicant’s skills, we also add a signal related to language ability in all resumes sent to half the job offers. The design allows to uniquely identify the effect of the language signal by gender. Although the signal inclusion significantly reduces the discrimination against non-French females, it is much weaker for male minorities.

Cet article s’intéresse aux conceptions subjectives du « bien vieillir » chez les plus de 40 ans en France. Nous tentons de mettre au jour les facteurs explicatifs de ces conceptions, en prêtant une attention particulière au rôle du statut socioéconomique. Pour cela, nous analysons des données issues d’une enquête quantitative originale menée en 2016 auprès d’environ 1730 adhérents d’une mutuelle. Dans l’ensemble, bien vieillir signifie surtout être satisfait de sa santé, de sa situation financière, de sa vie familiale et de son couple. Les conditions d’existence ont un impact sur les conceptions du bien vieillir. En effet, dans les milieux plus favorisés, bien vieillir est plus souvent synonyme de bonne santé, de sociabilité et de projets, tandis que dans les milieux plus défavorisés, l’accent est davantage mis sur la satisfaction vis-à-vis du logement et de son environnement, ce qui pourrait renvoyer à des conditions d’habitat plus souvent insatisfaisantes et au « choix du nécessaire ».

We here consider the relationship between the individual time profile of crime victimisation and sleep quality. Sleep quality worsens with contemporaneous crime victimisation, with physical violence having a larger effect than property crime. But crime history also matters, and past victimisation experience continues to reduce current sleep quality. Last, there is some evidence that the order of victimisation spells plays a role: consecutive years of crime victimisation affect sleep quality more adversely than the same number of years when not contiguous.

Is retirement good for your health? We complement previous studies by exploring the effect of retirement on unexpected health evolution. Using panel data from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia survey (2001-2014), we construct measures of the mismatch between individual expected and actual health evolution (hereafter “health shocks”). In our approach, reverse causation running from health shocks to retirement is highly unlikely, because we look at shocks that happen after retirement, and those shocks are, by definition, unanticipated. We find that retirement decreases the probability of negative shocks (by approximately 16% to 24% for men and 14% to 23% for women) while increasing the likelihood of positive shocks (by 9% to 14% for men and 10% to 13% for women). This result is robust to the use of different lead-lag structures and of alternative measures of health change. Our findings are thus consistent with a positive impact of retirement on health.

We here use five rounds of Afrobarometer data covering more than 100,000 individuals over the 2004–2016 period to explore the link between individual self‐reported measures of living conditions and access to four basic needs. We not only consider own access to these needs, but also various indices of their deprivation, satisfaction and inequality. We find some evidence of comparisons to those who are better off and to those who are worse off, in terms of access to basic needs, in the evaluation of current living conditions. Overall, however, subjective living conditions are mostly absolute in African countries. There is notable heterogeneity by level of development, with the effect of lack of access to basic needs being more pronounced in poorer countries. Equally, comparisons to the better off are associated with better living conditions in poorer countries, suggesting the existence of a tunnel effect: this latter disappears with economic development.

Why do people pay taxes? Rational choice theory has fallen short in answering this question. Another explanation, called “tax morale”, has been promoted. Tax morale captures the behavioral idea that non-monetary preferences (like norm-submission, moral emotions and moral judgments) might be better determinants of tax compliance than monetary trade-offs. Herein we report on two lab experiments designed to assess whether norm-submission, moral emotions (e.g. affective empathy, cognitive empathy, propensity to feel guilt and shame) or moral judgments (e.g. ethics principles, integrity, and moralization of everyday life) can help explain compliance behavior. Although we find statistically significant correlations of tax compliance behavior with empathy and shame, the economic significance of these correlations are low–—more than 80% of the variability in compliance remains unexplained. These results suggest that tax authorities should focus on the institutional context, rather than individual preference characteristics, to handle tax evasion.

Ce Précis propose un panorama des méthodes expérimentales utilisées en sciences économiques. Ces méthodes ont été développées afin d’observer les comportements adoptés par les « agents économiques » dans des situations qui répliquent celles auxquelles s’intéresse l’économiste ; mais dans un environnement contrôlé. Sur cette base, les outils présentés dans ce précis permettent de tester les prédictions et le contenu empirique de la théorie économique, de faire émerger de nouveaux faits stylisés sur le fonctionnement de situations mal comprises par la théorie, ou encore d’informer l’élaboration des politiques publiques. Cette large palette d’objectifs explique que ces méthodes soient devenues très courantes en économie appliquée, et que leur usage se soit diffusé au-delà de l’économie à des domaines tels que le marketing, la gestion ou encore le management. L’ouvrage présente un traitement détaillé des principaux outils disponibles pour mesurer différents aspects des comportements économiques : les décisions individuelles dans le certain et dans l’incertain, les choix intertemporels, les interactions stratégiques, les préférences sociales et les mécanismes d’allocation de ressources. L’ouvrage présente également les critères méthodologiques qui permettent d’évaluer la pertinence théorique et empirique des données récoltées à partir de ces outils.

We give a review and critique of jury theorems from a social-epistemology perspective, covering Condorcet’s (1785) classic theorem and several later refinements and departures. We assess the plausibility of the conclusions and premises featuring in jury theorems and evaluate the potential of such theorems to serve as formal arguments for the ‘wisdom of crowds’. In particular, we argue (i) that there is a fundamental tension between voters’ independence and voters’ competence, hence between the two premises of most jury theorems; (ii) that the (asymptotic) conclusion that ‘huge groups are infallible’, reached by many jury theorems, is an artifact of unjustified premises; and (iii) that the (non-asymptotic) conclusion that ‘larger groups are more reliable’, also reached by many jury theorems, is not an artifact and should be regarded as the more adequate formal rendition of the ‘wisdom of crowds’.

A group is often construed as one agent with its own probabilistic beliefs (credences), which are obtained by aggregating those of the individuals, for instance through averaging. In their celebrated “Groupthink”, Russell et al. (2015) require group credences to undergo Bayesian revision whenever new information is learnt, i.e., whenever individual credences undergo Bayesian revision based on this information. To obtain a fully Bayesian group, one should often extend this requirement to non‐public or even private information (learnt by not all or just one individual), or to non‐representable information (not representable by any event in the domain where credences are held). I propose a taxonomy of six types of ‘group Bayesianism’. They differ in the information for which Bayesian revision of group credences is required: public representable information, private representable information, public non‐representable information, etc. Six corresponding theorems establish how individual credences must (not) be aggregated to ensure group Bayesianism of any type, respectively. Aggregating through standard averaging is never permitted; instead, different forms of geometric averaging must be used. One theorem—that for public representable information—is essentially Russell et al.’s central result (with minor corrections). Another theorem—that for public non‐representable information—fills a gap in the theory of externally Bayesian opinion pooling.

Hosting the Olympic Games costs billions of taxpayer dollars. Following a quasi-experimental setting, this paper assesses the intangible impact of the London 2012 Olympics, using a novel panel of 26,000 residents in London, Paris, and Berlin during the summers of 2011, 2012, and 2013. We show that hosting the Olympics increases subjective well-being of the host city’s residents during the event, particularly around the times of the opening and closing ceremonies. However, we do not find much evidence for legacy effects. Estimating residents’ implicit willingness-to-pay for the event, we do not find that it was worth it for London alone, but a modest well-being impact on the rest of the country would make hosting worth the costs.

Au cours d’une enquête quantitative menée en 2016 auprès de 1 700 adhérents d’une mutuelle, nous avons mesuré l’intérêt pour différents services qui seraient proposés par la mutuelle et utiliseraient les données personnelles dans une logique de médecine personnalisée. Les répondants sont à la fois préoccupés par la confidentialité de leurs données et intéressés par leur utilisation dans un but de suivi, de prédiction et de prévention. L’intérêt est plus marqué en cas de mauvaise santé et d’inquiétude pour les vieux jours. On observe un intérêt plus faible chez les individus dont la position sociale est plus élevée, peut-être du fait de leurs ressources matérielles et culturelles et de leur préoccupation vis-à-vis des risques liés à l’utilisation des données.

Although over 40 jurisdictions have adopted a tax on sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) for public health worldwide, it is still debated in many places. Policy processes can influence the prospect of an SSB tax, its design and its public health benefits. To get an insight into such processes, we undertook a case study of the soda tax enacted in France on the 1st of January 2012. Newspaper articles (2003–2013) and institutional documents (2007–2012) were identified using keywords and search engines. Qualitative data extraction and analyses were performed on a thematic and chronological basis, with guidance from Kingdon’s multiple streams theory (MST). Triangulation was enhanced by using complementary sources. This study shows that in August 2011, the French government surprisingly announced a €3.58 cent/L excise tax on SSBs, excluding juices with no added sugars and non-calorically sweetened beverages (NCSBs). As part of a large budgetary plan, the proposal aimed to reduce SSB consumption and raise revenue that was earmarked for health care. Several conditions contributed to opening a policy window: The announcement occurred in the context of severe budgetary deficits; soda tax scenarios had already been discussed at a high level; and the bill was supported by convinced political leaders. Subsequently, the tax successfully passed through the legislative process due to a series of unexpected events, but its public health rationale and design were weakened. The first event was the disorganised reaction by the food industry, despite their sharp opposition to the tax. The next event was the support of the soda tax that came from a majority of Deputies, provided that the revenues would serve another purpose: relieving wage costs in the farming sector. Finally, policy entrepreneurs favoured a compromise to make the tax politically acceptable and legally viable: The tax rate doubled, the scope was extended to NCSBs and revenues were split between health care and agriculture. This study sheds light on influence factors that could be taken into account by public health actors willing to influence soda tax policy processes.

Hosting the Olympic Games costs billions of taxpayer dollars. Following a quasi- experimental setting, this paper assesses the intangible impact of the London 2012 Olympics, using a novel panel of 26,000 residents in London, Paris, and Berlin during the summers of 2011, 2012, and 2013. We show that hosting the Olympics increases subjective well-being of the host city’s residents during the event, particularly around the times of the opening and closing ceremonies. However, we do not _nd much evi- dence for legacy e_ects. Estimating residents’ implicit willingness-to-pay for the event, we do not _nd that it was worth it for London alone, but a modest wellbeing impact on the rest of the country would make hosting worth the costs.

Economic insecurity has attracted growing attention in social, academic and policy cir- cles. However, there is no consensus as to its precise de_nition. Intuitively, economic insecurity is multi-faceted, making any comprehensive formal de_nition that subsumes all possible aspects extremely challenging. We propose a simpli_ed approach, and character- ize a class of individual economic-insecurity measures that are based on the time pro_le of economic resources. We then apply our economic-insecurity measure to data on political preferences. In US, UK and German panel data, and conditional on current economic resources, economic insecurity is associated with both greater political participation (sup- port for a party or the intention to vote) and notably more support for parties on the right of the political spectrum. We in particular _nd that economic insecurity predicts greater support for both Donald Trump before the 2016 US Presidential election and the UK leaving the European Union in the 2016 Brexit referendum.

We here use the employment-history data from the British Cohort Study to calculate an individual’s total experience of unemployment from the time they left education up to age 30. We show that, conditional on current unemployment, this experience is negatively correlated with the life satisfaction that the individual reports at age 30, so that past unemployment scars. We also identify the childhood circumstances and family background that predict this adult unemployment experience. Educational achievement and good behaviour at age 16 both reduce adult unemployment experience, and emotional health at age 16 is a particularly strong predictor of unemployment experience for women. Both boys and girls reproduce on average their parents’ unemployment, so that adult unemployment experience is transmitted between generations. We uncover evidence of a social-norm effect: children from less-advantaged backgrounds both experience more adult unemployment but are less affected by it in well-being.

Using a choice experiment in the lab, we assess the relative importance of different attitudes to income inequality. We elicit subjects’ preferences regarding pairs of payoff distributions within small groups, in a firm-like setting. We find that distributions that satisfy the Pareto-dominance criterion attract unanimous suffrage: all subjects prefer larger inequality provided it makes everyone weakly better off. This is true no matter whether payoffs are based on merit or luck. Unanimity only breaks once subjects’ positions within the income distribution are fixed and known ex-ante. Even then, 75% of subjects prefer Pareto-dominant distributions, but 25% of subjects engage in money burning at the top in order to reduce inequality, even when it does not make anyone better off. A majority of subjects embrace a more equal distribution if their own income or overall efficiency is not at stake. When their own income is at stake and the sum of payoffs remains unaffected, 20% of subjects are willing to pay for a lower degree of inequality.

John Broome has developed an account of rationality and reasoning which gives philosophical foundations for choice theory and the psychology of rational agents. We formalize his account into a model that di¤ers from ordinary choice-theoretic models through focusing on psychology and the reasoning process. Within that model, we ask Broome s central question of whether reasoning can make us more rational: whether it allows us to acquire transitive preferences, consistent beliefs, non-akratic intentions, and so on. We identify three structural types of rationality requirements: consistency requirements, completeness requirements, and closedness requirements. Many standard rationality requirements fall under this typology. Based on three theorems, we argue that reasoning is successful in achieving closedness requirements, but not in achieving consistency or completeness requirements. We assess how far our negative results reveal gaps in Broome s theory, or de ciencies in choice theory and behavioural economics.

We study the measurement of well-being when individuals have hetero- geneous preferences, including di_erent conceptions of a life worth living. When individuals di_er in the conception of a life worth living, the equivalent income can regard an individual whose life is not worth living as being better o_ than an individual whose life is worth living. In order to avoid that paradoxical result, we reexamine the ethical foundations of well-being measures in such a way as to take into account heterogeneity in the conception of a life worth living. We derive, from simple axioms, an alternative measure of well-being, which is an equivalent income net of the income threshold making lifetime neutral. That new well-being index always ranks an individual whose life is not worth living as worse-o_ than an individual with a life worth living.

This paper describes, in a non-technical way, the main impact evaluation methods, both experimental and quasi-experimental, and the statistical model underlying them. In the first part, we provide a brief survey of the papers making use of those methods that have been published by the journal Economie et Statistique / Economics and Statistics over the past fifteen years. In the second part, some of the most important methodological advances to have recently been put forward in this field of research are presented. To finish, we focus not only on the need to pay particular attention to the accuracy of the estimated effects, but also on the requirement to replicate evaluations, carried out by experimentation or quasi-experimentation, in order to distinguish false positives from proven effects.

Ce document présente l’enquête Bien Vieillir Harmonie Mutuelle (BVHM) réalisée en 2016 auprès d’adhérents de la mutuelle. Nous décrivons les objectifs et le déroulement de l’enquête puis présentons son questionnaire en lien avec la littérature académique.

When considering the social valuation of a life-year, there is a conflict between two basic intuitions: on the one hand, the intuition of universality, according to which the value of an additional life-year should be universal, and, as such, should be invariant to the context considered; on the other hand, the intuition of complementarity, according to which the value of a life-year should depend on what this extra life-year allows for, and, hence, on the quality of that life-year, because the quantity of life and the quality of life are complement to each other. This paper proposes three distinct accounts of the intuition of universality, and shows that those accounts either conflict with a basic monotonicity property, or lead to indifference with respect to how life-years are distributed within the population. Those results support the abandon of the intuition of universality. But abandoning the intuition of universality does not prevent a social evaluator from giving priority, when allocating life-years, to individuals with the lowest quality of life.

There has been explosive growth in the analysis of subjective well‐being in Economics over the past 40 years. This article reviews some of this growth, and suggests a number of domains in which future research may proceed.

In France, temporary institutionalization solutions for dependent elders have been encouraged since the early 2000s. They are targeting patients who are maintained at home, but may need temporary solutions to adjust the constraints of caregivers, e.g. to facilitate transitions between several informal care providers or to allow informal caregivers to leave for holidays. However, the influence of these solutions on dependent elders and their caregivers has not been explored yet. We use French longitudinal data (REAL.FR, 686 elders and their primary caregivers followed between 2000 and 2006) to explore the impact of institution placement on the wellbeing of both Alzheimer’s disease patients and their primary informal caregivers. The data distinguishes permanent placements in institution from temporary stays. Using fixed-effect models, we quantify the change in patients’ quality of life and caregivers’ burden of care following the placement of patients. We find that permanent and temporary stays are associated with a decrease in informal caregivers’ burden. However, only permanent stays lead to an improvement of patients’ quality of life. Hence, taken together, the results suggest that while long-run placements may maximize the wellbeing of all the members of a household (patient and caregiver), this is not necessarily the case of short-term placements.

The behavioural impact and acceptability of soft-drink taxes depend crucially on their incidence on consumer prices and welfare across socio-economic groups and markets. We use KantarWorldpanel homescan data to analyse the incidence of the 2012 French soda tax on Exact Price Indices (EPI) measuring consumer welfare from the availability and consumption of Sugar-Sweetened Beverages (SSB) and Non-Calorically Sweetened Beverages (NCSB) at a local geographical level. The soda tax has had significant, similar but small impacts on the EPI of SSB and NCSB (+4%), corresponding to an aggregate pass-through of about 40%. Tax incidence was slightly higher for low-income and high-consuming households. Retailers set higher pass-throughs in low-income, less-competitive and smaller markets. They did not change their product assortments. The lack of horizontal competition in low-income markets had a sizeable effect on tax regressivity. Finally, the negative income gradient in tax incidence was offset by a positive gradient in expected health benefits.

Dans le contexte du vieillissement de la population, cet article s’intéresse aux attentes en termes de nouveaux services qui pourraient faciliter le bien vieillir en France. A partir de données originales sur les adhérents d’une mutuelle, nous nous concentrons sur les attentes relatives à sept types de services (services liés à la vie sociale, et à la santé et aux soins, entre autres) et étudions leurs déterminants. Nos analyses montrent le rôle majeur joué par l’altruisme, la solidarité, et l’anticipation de la dépendance dans ces attentes.

This paper argues that the socialist episode in East Germany, which constituted a radical experiment in gender equality in the labor market and other instances, has left persistent tracks on gender norms. We focus on one of the most resilient and pervasive gender gaps in modern societies: mathematics. Using the German division as a natural experiment, we show that the underperformance of girls in math is sharply reduced in the regions of the former GDR, in contrast with those of the former FRG. We show that this East-West difference is due to girls’ attitudes, confidence and competitiveness in math, and not to other confounding factors, such as the difference in economic conditions or teaching styles across the former political border. We also provide illustrative evidence that the gender gap in math is smaller in European countries that used to be part of the Soviet bloc, as opposed to the rest of Europe. The lesson is twofold: (1) a large part of the pervasive gender gap in math is due to social stereotypes; (2) institutions can durably modify these stereotypes.

La question de la transmission du patrimoine a été récemment au centre de l’actualité médiatique et académique.

Préparer ses vieux jours ou pas : quelques facteurs explicatifs (Mondes Sociaux)

This text offers a survey of the various studies concerning the degree of intergenerational wealth mobility. The set of measurements established by the various authors makes it possible to judge the magnitude of wealth inequality transmission in different societies. Beyond any material intergenerational transfers (inheritance and gifts), some studies take into account the transmission of other characteristics: Education, income, preferences, genes, etc. to explain the degree of mobility. Most econometric studies of intergenerational wealth mobility reveal that parents’ wealth has a significant effect on their offspring’s wealth. The extent of this immobility depends on the country, time period, and data used, but also on the levels of wealth. The intergenerational elasticity of wealth is probably higher among the rich (around 0.70), than in the rest of the population, where it rarely exceeds 0.50. In other words, having parents twice as rich as their generational average allows a child be 50% more wealthy compared to their own.

What makes people happy? Why should governments care about people’s well-being? How would policy change if well-being was the main objective? The Origins of Happiness seeks to revolutionize how we think about human priorities and to promote public policy changes that are based on what really matters to people. Drawing on a uniquely comprehensive range of evidence from longitudinal data on over one hundred thousand individuals in Britain, the United States, Australia, and Germany, the authors consider the key factors that affect human well-being.

What is the relationship between degrees of belief and binary beliefs? Can the latter be expressed as a function of the former – a so-called “belief-binarization rule” – without running into difficulties such as the lottery paradox? We show that this problem can be usefully analyzed from the perspective of judgment-aggregation theory. Although some formal similarities between belief binarization and judgment aggregation have been noted before, the connection between the two problems has not yet been studied in full generality. We seek to fill this gap. This paper is organized around a baseline impossibility theorem, which we use to map out the space of possible solutions to the belief-binarization problem. Our theorem shows that, except in limiting cases, there exists no belief-binarization rule satisfying four initially plausible desiderata. Surprisingly, this result is a direct corollary of the judgmentaggregation variant of Arrow’s classic impossibility theorem in social choice theory.

Explored by sociologist James Coleman to political scientist robert putnam, the concept of social capital has gained widespread popularity in the last few decades.